GIFT  OF 
Marston  Campbell,  Jr. 


JLihzarv 


This  NEW  and  REVISED  EDITION  of  GAS, 
GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES,  by  Gardner  D. 
Hiscox,  is  a  NET  BOOK,  and  must  be  sold  by  the 
book  trade  at  the  RETAIL  PRICE  of  $2.50. 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  Co. 

PUBLISHERS 
132  NASSAU  STREET,   NEW  YORK,  U.  S.  A. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

INCLUDING 

PRODUCER-GAS  PLANTS; 


A  NEW,   COMPLETE,   AND  PEACTICAL  WORK  ON 

GAS,  GASOLINE,  KEROSENE,  AND  CRUDE  PETROLEUM  OIL-ENGINES, 
INCLUDING  PRODUCER-GAS  PLANTS  FOR  GAS-ENGINE  OWNERS,  GAS 
ENGINEERS,  AND  INTENDING  PURCHASERS  OF  GAS-ENGINES,  FUL- 
LY DESCRIBING  AND  ILLUSTRATING  THE  THEORY,  DESIGN,  CON- 
STRUCTION, AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR  FOR 

STATIONARY,  MARINE,  AND  VEHICLE  MOTOR  POWER 

BY 

GARDNER   D.   HISCOX,  M.E. 

Author  of  "Mechanical  Movements,     " Compressed  Air,"  etc.,  etc. 


INCLUDING  A   LIST   OF  UNITED   STATES   PATENTS   ISSUED   ON 
THE   GAS-ENGINE    INDUSTRY   TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME 

A  NEW  BOOK  FROM  COVER  TO  COVER 
ENTIRELY  RESET,  REVISED,  AND  ENLARGED 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  THREE  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY-ONE  ENGRAVINGS 
SIXTEENTH  EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  Co. 

132  NASSAU  STREET 

1907 


Engineering 
Library 

COPYRIGHTED,  1907,  BY 
THE   NORMAN  W.   HENLEY  PUBLISHING  CO. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1905,  BY 
THE  NORMAN  W.   HENLEY  PUBLISHING  CO. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1904,  BY  COPYRIGHTED,  1898,  BY 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUB.  Co.  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  Co. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1897,  BY 
NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  Co. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1902,  BY 
NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  Co. 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London,  England 


All  Rights  Reserved 


COMPOSITION,  ELECTROTYPING  AND  PRESS- 
WORK  BY  TROW  DIRECTORY,  PRINTING  AND 
BOOKBINDING  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    SIXTEENTH    EDITION 

A  BOOK  representing  and  illustrating  the  details  of  design, 
manufacture,  and  management  of  a  new  and  progressive  prime- 
moving  power,  falls  behind  its  time. by  age  and  therefore  needs  re- 
arrangement and  additions  to  bring  its  text  and  illustrations  up 
to  date  in  all  the  departments  of  such  progressive  industry. 

There  is  probably  no  more  important  mechanical  industry, 
involving  the  production  of  motive  power  for  all  purposes  within 
the  age  of  steam,  than  that  of  the  explosive  motor  and  its  far-reach- 
ing effect  in  the  promotion  of  industry  by  a  cheap  helping  hand. 

So  quickly  has  this  new  power  expanded  to  almost  universal 
usefulness  as  a  labor-saving  element  in  the  lesser  industries,  that 
the  literature  of  the  past  is  found  lacking  in  its  up-to-date  needs. 
Progress  and  improvement  are  the  drift  of  genius  in  this  advanced 
age.  The  progress  made  in  adapting  the  use  of  crude  petroleum 
as  fuel  for  explosive  power,  together  with  the  rapid  development 
of  the  producer-gas  industry,  have  given  a  new  economy  in  the 
production  of  power,  while  the  use  of  the  hitherto  neglected  gaseous 
elements  of  the  blast-furnace  and  coke  manufacture  have  added 
new  sources  of  power  production  at  a  nominal  cost. 

With  these  matters  in  view  the  author  has  revised,  rewritten, 
and  added  to  the  contents  of  the  last  edition  of  this  work  such 
material  and  ideals  that  have  come  to  his  knowledge  as  will  better 
represent  the  latest  standards  of  construction  and  operation  of  the 
explosive  motor ;  to  which  is  included  an  illustrated  chapter  on  the 
production  of  the  new  fuel  gases  and  their  uses. 

The  producer,  suction,  blast-furnace,  and  coke-oven  gases,  which 
are  now  coming  to  the  front  on  a  large  scale  for  economic  power, 
are  included  in  this  work,  while  crude  petroleum  and  its  conversion 
into  power  fuel  is  described  and  illustrated  in  the  chapter  on  Oil- 
Vapor  Motors.  It  has  a  growing  usefulness  as  the  cheapest  power 
fuel  where  the  erection  of  gas-plants  are  not  convenient. 

7 

834143 


8  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

The  insurance  interest  has  formulated  rules  and  regulations  for 
the  safe  installation  of  gasoline-motors  and  producer-gas  plants, 
which  are  given  a  place  in  this  edition  as  a  much  needed  matter  of 
reference. 

The  list  of  patents  has  been  extended  into  the  past  year,  and 
a  list  of  the  manufacturers  of  explosive  motors  of  all  types,  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  has  been  added  for  the  information  of 
inquirers. 

The  publishers  have  had  the  entire  work  reset  from  new  type, 
and  have  .added  several  hundred  new  illustrations.  The  book  has 
therefore  been  brought  right  up  to  date. 

GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 
JANUARY,  1907 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Introductory 15 

Historical  Progress  of  Explosive  Power 17 

CHAPTER  II 

Theory  of  the  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines. — Heat  and  its  Work. — Iso- 
thermal and  Adiabatic  Law. — Formulas  and  Examples. — Tables  20 

CHAPTER  III 

Utilization  of  Heat  and  its  Efficiency  in  Explosive  Motors. — Tables 
and  Diagrams. — Temperatures  and  Pressures.  —  Formulas  and 
Examples ,32 

CHAPTER  IV 

Retarded  Combustion,  Wall-Cooling,  and  Compression  Efficiencies. — 

Advanced  Ignition. — Diagrams 46 

CHAPTER  V 

Compression  in  Explosive  Motors  and  its  Work. — Formulas,  Tables, 

and  Diagram. — Examples 54 

CHAPTER  VI 

Causes  of  Loss  and   Inefficiency  in   Explosive  Motors. — Combustion 

Chamber,  its  Form  and  Influence 59 

CHAPTER  VII 

Economy  of  the  Gas-Engine  for  Electric  Lighting. — Merits  of  the  Two 

and  Four  Cycle  Type. — Charge  Distribution 63 

9 


10  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PAGE 

The  Materials  of  Power  in  Explosive  Engines. — Illuminating  Gas, 
Natural  Gas,  Producer-Gas,  Gasoline,  Kerosene,  Acetylene,  and 
Alcohol. — Composition  and  Fuel  Valves. — Tables  .  .  .  .70 


CHAPTER  IX 

Carbureters  and  Vaporizers. — Vapor-Gas  for  Explosive  Motors. — Atom- 
izing Carbureters  and  Vaporizers. — Methods  of  Starting  Motors    .       85 


CHAPTER  X 

Cylinder  Capacity  of  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines. — Tables  of  Sizes  and 
Powers. — Cylinder  Diameter,  Stroke,  and  Motor  Parts. — Table 
of  Motor  Dimensions  106 


CHAPTER  XI 

Governors  and  Valve-Gear. — Fly-Ball,  Inertia,  and  Pendulum  Types. — 

Direct  Valve-Gear. — Cams    .  112 


CHAPTER  XII 

Explosive-Motor  Ignition. — Hot-Tube  Igniters. — Timing  Valves. — 
Electric  Ignition. — Primary  Batteries,  Sparkling  Coils,  Magnetos, 
Dynamos,  and  Multicylinder  Ignition. — Break-Spark  Devices. — 
Ignition-Plugs. — Exploder,  Jump-Spark  Coil. — Dash  Coil. — Non- 
Synchronous  Action  of  Vibrator. — Wiring  for  Sparking  and  Jump- 
Spark  Coils.— Multiple-Spark  Timer 122 


CHAPTER  XIII 
Cylinder  Lubrication. — Mufflers. — Gas-Bag. — Constant  Oil-Feed  .        .162 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Constructive  Details  and  Parts  of  the  Explosive  Motor. — Cylinder, 
Piston,  Piston-Rod,  Crank,  Journal  Bearings,  and  Counter-Bal- 
ance.— Self-Oiling  Journal  Box 167 


CONTENTS  11 

CHAPTER  XV 

PAGE 

Explosive-Motor  Dimensions. — Formulas  for  Parts. — Worm-Gear. — 
Valves  and  Their  Design. — Rotary  Valves. — Motor-Cycles. — Cam 
Design. — Diagrams 178 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Types  and  Details  of  the  Explosive  Motor. — Day  Model.: — Root  Model. 
— Non-Vibrating  Model. — Automobile  and  Stationary  Models. — 
Differential  Piston  and  Scavenging  Models. — Plans  and  Models  of 
Various  Builders. — Air-Cooled  Motor. — The  Lightest  Motor. — 
Balanced  and  Combination  Motors. — Special  Valves  and  Valve- 
Gear.  —  Kerosene-Motors.  —  Double  -  Acting  Motors.  —  Opposed 
Cylinder  Motors. — Water-Cooled  Valves. — Curious  Two-Cylinder 
Motor. — The  Scavenging  Engine.— Cooling  Radiators. — Fan- 
Cooled  Motor. — Starting  Clutches. — Reversing  Gear. — Speed  Gears 
for  Automobiles. — Vehicle-Motor  Starter. — Foot  Treadle. — Safety 
Device 191 

CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Measurement  of  Power. — Prony  Brake.— Tachometer. — The  Indi- 
cator and  its  Work. — Vibration  of  Buildings  and  Floors  .  .  250 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

The    Management    of    Explosive    Motors.  —  Pointers    on    Explosive 

Motors. — Troubles  Explained 262 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Explosive-Engine   Testing. — Back-Firing  in  Explosive  Motors. — Fire 

Underwriters'  Regulations  for  Gasoline-Engines        ....     272 

CHAPTER  XX 

Gas  and  Gasoline  Motors. — The  Amateur's  Motor. — Gemmer,  Westing- 
house,  Lambert,  Union,  Blakeslee,  Hartig,  Root  &  Vandervoort, 
Hubbard,  Fairbanks,  Morse  and  Company,  Motors. — Crude-Oil 
Generators  284 


12  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXI 

PAGE 

Marine  Motors. — Marine  Engines  and  Their  Work. — Table,  Size  of 
Engines  and  Boats. — Bridgeport,  Yacht  Gas-Engine  and  Launch 
Company  Motors.  —  Racing  Launch.  —  Godshalk  and  Company 
Motors. — J.  J.  Parker  Company  and  Standard  Construction  Com- 
pany Motors.  —  Trawl  Boats.  —  Mianus,  Hall  Brothers',  Lozier, 
Cushman,  and  Smalley  Motors 313 

CHAPTER  XXII 

Motor-Bicycles,  Tricycles,  and  Automobiles. — Thor  Motor-Bicycle. — 
Operation  of  the  Motor-Bicycle.  —  Mitchell  Motor-Bicycle.  — 
Tricycle  Motor.  —  Brennan  and  Chadwick  Motors.  —  Dynamo 
Governor  for  Automobiles 336 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

Kerosene,  Distillate,  and  Petroleum  Oil  Motors. — International  Power  . 
Vehicle  Company,  Kerosene  Oil  Engine  Company,  American 
and  British  Manufacturing  Company,  Henshaw,  Bulkley  and 
Company,  Mietz  and  Weiss,  and  Hornsby-Akroyd  Oil-Engines. 
— Diesel  Motor. — Crude-Oil  Gas-Generators  of  Samson  Iron  Works 
and  Best  Manufacturing  Company 347 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

Producer-Gas  and  its  Production. — Coke-Oven  Gas. — Blast-Furnace 
Gas. — Producer-Gas  for  Marine  Propulsion. — Producer-Gas  Genera- 
tors of  Various  Types.— Low,  Belgian,  German,  Pintsch,  arid  Mond 
Types. — Aspirator-Gas  Plant.— Nagel's  Suction-Gas  Plant.— Press- 
ure Producer-Gas  Plant  of  the  Wile  Power  Gas  Company. — Suction 
or  Aspirator  Gas. — Riche  Distillation  Producer  for  Wood  Gas. — 
Fairbanks,  Morse  Company,  and  German  Suction  Producer-Gas 
Plants. — Regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Underwriters  for 
the  Location  and  Management  of  Producer-Gas  Plants  .  .  370 

CHAPTER  XXV 

List  of  Patents  Issued  since  1875  on  Gas,  Gasoline,  and  Oil  Engines     .     401 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

Names  and  Addresses  of  Builders  of  Gas,  Gasoline,  and  Oil  Engines  in 

the  United  States  and  Canada   .  .        .     423 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

INCLUDING 

PRODUCER-GAS   PLANTS 


GAS,   GASOLINE,    AND    OIL-ENGINES 


CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 

MUCH  attention  is  now  being  given  by  mechanical  engineers  to 
the  economical  results  that  may  be  developed  in  the  working  of 
gas,  gasoline,  and  oil-engines  for  higher  powers  from  producer 
and  other  cheap  gases  and  from  petroleum  and  its  products.  In  an 
economical  sense,  for  small  and  intermediate  power,  steam  has 
been  left  far  behind. 

It  now  becomes  a  question  as  to  how  to  adapt  the  design  of  the 
new  prime  mover  to  a  wider  range  of  usefulness  and  economy. 

The  best  condensing  steam-engines  now  made  run  with  a  con- 
sumption of  about  one  and  one-quarter  pounds  of  coal  per  horse- 
power hour;  while  from  two  and  one-half  to  seven  pounds  is  the 
cost  per  horse-power  hour  in  the  various  kinds  of  non-condensing 
engines  now  in  use.  This  only  covers  the  cost  of  fuel;  the  attend- 
ance required  in  the  use  of  small  steam-power  is  often  far  greater  in 
cost  than  the  fuel. 

When  we  come  to  require  the  larger  powers  by  steam,  in  which 
economy  may  be  obtained  by  compounding  and  condensing,  the 
facility  for  obtaining  the  requisite  water-supply  is  often  a  bar  to 
its  use.  The  direction  in  which  lies  the  line  of  improvement  for 
larger  powers  with  the  utmost  economy,  is  as  yet  a  mooted  point 
of  discussion  in  engineering  construction,  as  to  steam  or  explosive- 
motor  power. 

The  expansion  of  single-cylinder  dimensions  for  explosive  mo- 
tors, involves  practical  problems  in  the  progress  of  ignition  of  the 
charge,  as  well  as  the  thoroughness  of  mixture  of  the  combustibles; 
the  interference  of  the  products  of  the  previous  combustion 
by  producing  areas  of  imperfect  mixture  or  stratification,  as  dis- 
cussed in  the  earlier  publications,  and  which  are  not  yet  fully  solved ; 
but  good  progress  has  been  made  in  this  line. 

The  enlargement  of  cylinder-area  is  a  source  of  engine-friction 

15 


16       '  V  ::/;(ks.  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

,;    «•*     ;,%•''**   *  *          "          '         * 

«  -  *»t  •    *  *  *  *      *  ,**a       * 

economy ;  while,*  "on  -  the  contrary,  the  multiplication  of  cylinders 
involves  numbers  and  complexity  of  moving  parts,  which  go  to  make 
disparity  between  the  indicated  and  brake  horse-power,  which  is 
the  measure  of  machine  efficiency. 

An  impulse  at  every  stroke,  so  desirable  in  an  explosive  motor 
and  so  satisfactorily  carried  out  in  the  steam-engine,  seems  to  have 
as  yet  but  a  limited  counterpart  in  the  explosive  motor,  as  trials 
of  motors  with  explosion  at  every  stroke  have  not  yet  proved 
entirely  satisfactory  in  service,  although  double-acting  motors  are 
in  use,  and  in  order  to  accomplish  fully  the  desired  result,  resort  has 
been  had  to  the  duplication  of  single-acting  cylinders.  This  class 
of  explosive-motors  seem  to  fill  the  bill  in  effect;  yet  the  complica- 
tion of  a  two-cylinder  engine  as  a  moving  mechanism  must  com- 
pete writh  a  single-cylinder  steam-engine. 

The  principle  types  of  explosive  motors  seem  to  have  gone 
through  a  series  of  practical  trials  during  the  past  thirty-five  years, 
which  have  finally  reduced  the  principles  of  action  to  a  few  per- 
manent forms  in  the  design  of  motors  that  have  shown  by  their 
long-continued  use  the  prospect  of  their  staying  qualities  and 
efficiency. 

For  a  gas,  gasoline,  or  oil-explosive  power  to  approximate  an 
ideal  standard  as  a  prime  mover,  it  should  be  simple  in  design  and 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  order;  the  parts  must  be  readily  accessible, 
the  ignition  of  the  charge  must  be  positive  and  controllable,  the 
governing  close;  the  motor  must  run  quietly,  and  must  be  durable 
and  economical  in  the  use  of  fuel. 

These  points  of  excellence  have  been  striven  for  by  many  de- 
signers and  builders,  with  varying  success;  but  to  get  the  entire 
combination  without  the  sacrifice  of  some  good  point  is  not  an  easy 
matter. 

But  for  all,  the  internal- combustion  engine  has  come  seemingly 
like  an  avalanche  of  a  decade;  but  it  has  come  to  stay,  to  take 
its  well-deserved  position  among  the  powers  for  aiding  labor. 

Its  ready  adaptation  to  road  and  marine  service  has  made  it  a 
wonder  of  the  age  in  the  development  of  speed,  not  before 
dreamed  of  as  a  possibility;  yet  in  so  short  a  time,  its  power  for 
speed  has  taken  rank  on  the  common  road  against  the  locomotive 
on  the  rail  with  its  century's  progress. 


HISTORICAL  17 


HISTORICAL 

Although  the  ideal  principle  of  explosive  power  was  conceived 
some  two  hundred  years  since,  and  experiments  made  with  gun- 
powder as  the  explosive  element,  it  was  not  until  the  last  years  of 
the  eighteenth  century  that  the  idea  took  a  patentable  shape,  and 
not  until  about  1826  (Brown's  gas-vacuum  engine)  that  a  further 
progress  was  made  in  England  by  condensing  the  products  of  com- 
bustion by  a  jet  of  water,  thus  creating  a  partial  vacuum. 

Brown's  was  probably  the  first  explosive  engine  that  did  real 
work.  It  was  clumsy  and  unwieldy  and  was  soon  relegated  to  its 
place  among  the  failures  of  previous  experiments.  No  approach  to 
active  explosive  effect  in  a  cylinder  was  reached  in  practice,  al- 
though many  ingenious  designs  were  described,  until  about  183S 
and  the  following  }^ears.  Barnett's  engine  in  England  was  the  first 
attempt  to  compress  the  charge  before  exploding.  From  this  time 
on  to  about  1860  many  patents  were  issued  in  Europe  and  a  few  in 
the  United  States  for  gas-engines,  but  the  progress  was  slow,  and 
its  practical  introduction  for  power  came  with  spasmodic  effect  and 
low  efficiency.  From  1860  on,  practical  improvement  seems  to 
have  been  made,  and  the  Lenoir  motor  was  produced  in  France  and 
brought  to  the  United  States.  It  failed  to  meet  expectations,  and 
was  soon  followed  by  further  improvements  in  the  Hugon  motor  in 
France  (1862),  followed  by  Beau  de  Rocha's  four-cycle  idea,  which 
has  been  slowly  developed  through  a  long  series  of  experimental 
trials  by  different  inventors.  In  the  hands  of  Otto  and  Langdon 
a  further  progress  was  made,  and  numerous  patents  were  issued  in 
England,  France,  and  Germany,  and  followed  up  by  an  increasing 
interest  in  the  United  States,  with  a  few  patents. 

From  1870  improvements  seem  to  have  advanced  at  a  steady 
rate,  and  largely  in  the  valve-gear  and  precision  of  governing  for 
variable  load. 

The  early  idea  of  the  necessity  of  slow  combustion  was  a  great 
drawback  in  the  advancement  of  efficiency,  and  the  suggestion  of 
de  Rocha  in  1862  did  not  take  root  as  a  prophetic  truth  until  many 
failures  and  years  of  experience  had  taught  the  fundamental  axiom 


18  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

that  rapidity  of  action  in  both  combustion  and  expansion  was  the 
basis  of  success  in  explosive  motors. 

With  this  truth  and  the  demand  for  small  and  safe  prime  movers, 
the  manufacture  of  gas-engines  increased  in  Europe  and  America 
at  a  more  rapid  rate,  and  improvements  in  perfecting  the  details 
of  this  cheap  and  efficient  prime  mover  have  finally  raised  it  to 
the  dignity  of  a  standard  motor  and  a  rival  of  the  steam-engine  for 
small  and  intermediate  powers,  with  a  prospect  of  largely  increasing 
its  individual  units  to  many  hundred,  if  not  to  the  thousand  horse- 
power in  a  single  cylinder.  The  unit  size  in  a  single  cylinder  has 
now  reached  to  about  700  horse-power  and  by  combining  cylinders 
in  the  same  machine,  powers  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  horse-power  are 
now  available  for  large  power-plants. 

The  application  of  the  gasoline  and  oil-motor  to  marine  propul- 
sion, to  the  horseless  vehicle,  the  automobile,  tricycle,  and  bicycle, 
has  had  a  most  stimulating  effect  in  adapting  ways  and  means  for 
applying  this  power  to  so  many  uses.  For  launches  and  as  auxilary 
power  for  yachts  and  larger  sailing  vessels,  the  explosive  motor  has 
overreached  its  steam  competitor  for  economy  and  convenience  and 
is  now  the  leading  power  for  the  smaller  craft;  even  aerial  naviga- 
tion has  come  in  for  its  share  in  motor-power  for  air-ships. 

Although  the  denser  population  of  Europe  claims  a  very  large 
representation  of  explosive  motors  in  use  for  all  purposes,  the 
manufacture  in  the  United  States  is  fast  forging  ahead  in  its  output 
of  this  cheap  power,  for  there  are  now  more  than  six  hundred  es- 
tablishments engaged  in  their  manufacture,  and  the  motors  in 
operation  number  many  thousands.  Their  safety  and  easy  man- 
agement as  well  as  their  economy  have  made  in  their  adoption  as 
agricultural  helpers  a  marvellous  inroad  on  the  old-fashioned  hand 
and  horse-powers  and  are  now  reaching  a  ne.w  and  prominent  place 
as  a  ready  means  of  power  for  pumping  water  for  the  farm  and  for 
irrigation,  and  for  driving  threshing-machines  and  wood-saws;  the 
operation  of  mowers  and  reapers  are  some  of  its  late  innovations. 

Its  adaptability  as  a  power  for  generating  electricity  for  all 
purposes,  is  fast  expanding  the  use  of  lighting  and  power  in  fields 
that  the  higher  cost  of  small  steam-power  had  precluded,  and  is 
now  in  its  newer  phases,  due  to  the  use  of  the  cheap  producer  gas- 
fuel,  extending  its  usefulness  to  the  largest  electrical  plants. 


HISTORICAL  19 

Thus  the  incentive  to  invention  has  been  the  father  to  a  fast- 
growing  industry  that  has  ameliorated  and  will  continue  to  amelio- 
rate the  labor  and  cost  of  power  for  all  purposes. 

The  kerosene-oil  engine  although  tardy  in  its  development,  due 
to  tenacity  of  the  fuel,  is  now  so  perfected  as  to  take  a  prominent 
place  for  all  power  purposes  within  the  range  of  its  application, 
and  passing  all  other  fuel  types  in  the  economy  of  its  power. 

Crude  petroleum  is  on  trial  for  power-fuel,  with  undoubted 
economy  as  to  cost,  but  its  mixed  constituents  are  not  as  satis- 
factory to  manage  as  the  refined  product;  yet  crude-oil  motors  are 
in  use  and  their  improvement  is  progressive. 

The  sporting  world  has  been  given  a  new  phase  in  its  possibilities 
for  racing  speed  from  the  power  and  adaptability  of  the  explosive 
motor. 

To  make  the  automobile  speed  on  a  good  common  road  range 
in  a  parallel  with  that  of  the  steam-locomotive  on  steel  rails,  is  an 
accomplishment  of  the  last  decade  and  should  satisfy  the  speed 
appetite  of  the  most  reckless  riders. 

The  racing  launch  has  also  nearly  reached  a  possible  limit  of 
speed  due  to  the  application  of  this  new  power  to  marine  use. 

The  amateur  craze  for  motive  power  seems  to  have  spread  with 
the  bicycle  pace,  until  the  fever  has  broken  out  in  a  multitude  of 
young  machinists  with  motor  proclivities. 

The  intense  interest  manifested  by  inventors  and  engineers  in 
the  new  motive  power  is  well  shown  in  the  progress  of  the  issue  of 
patents  during  the  past  thirty  years  for  explosive  motors  and  parts 
in  the  United  States. 

From  three  patents  in  1875,  the  number  has  gradually  increased 
to  about  eighty  per  annum  in  the  past  few  years  and  numbers  a  total 
of  over  eighteen  hundred  the  present  year  (1905). 

The  expiration  of  patents  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  has 
now  cast  loose  many  of  the  bonds  that  have  in  a  measure  retarded 
the  freedom  of  manufacture  in  the  explosive-motor  line,  so  that  the 
fundamental  principles  of  construction  are  no  longer  a  hindrance 
to  anyone  desiring  to  build  a  motor  without  infringing  on  patents 
in  force. 


CHAPTER   II 

THEORY   OF   THE    GAS   AND    GASOLINE-ENGINE 

THE  laws  controlling  the  elements  that  create  a  power  by  their 
expansion  by  heat  due  to  combustion,  when  properly  understood, 
become  a  matter  of  computation  in  regard  to  their  value  as  an 
agent  for  generating  power  in  the  various  kinds  of  explosive  engines. 

The  method  of  heating  the  elements  of  power  in  explosive 
engines  greatly  widens  the  limits  of  temperature  as  available  in 
other  types  of  heat-engines.  It  disposes  of  many  of  the  practical 
troubles  of  hot-air,  and  even  of  steam-engines,  in  the  simplicity 
and  directness  of  application  of  the  elements  of  power.  In  the 
explosive  engine  the  difficulty  of  conveying  heat  for  producing  ex- 
pansive effect  by  convection  is  displaced  by  the  generation  of  the 
required  heat  within  the  expansive  element  and  at  the  instant  of 
its  useful  work.  The  low  conductivity  of  heat  to  and  from  air  has 
been  the  great  obstacle  in  the  practical  development  of  the  hot- 
air  engine;  while,  on  the  contrary,  it  has  become  the  source  of 
economy  and  practicability  in  the  development  of  the  internal- 
'  combustion  engine. 

The  action  of  air,  gas,  and  the  vapors  of  gasoline  and  petroleum 
oil,  whether  singly  or  mixed,  is  affected  by  changes  of  temperature 
practically  in  nearly  the  same  ratio;  but  when  the  elements  that 
produce  combustion  are  interchanged  in  confined  spaces,  there  is 
a  marked  difference  of  effect.  The  oxygen  of  the  air,  the  hydrogen 
and  carbon  of  a  gas,  or  vapor  of  gasoline  or  petroleum  oil  are  the 
elements  that  by  combustion  produce  heat  to  expand  the  nitrogen 
of  the  air  and  the  watery  vapor  produced  by  the  union  of  the  oxygen 
in  the  air  and  the  hydrogen  in  the  gas,  as  well  as  also  the  monoxide 
and  carbonic-acid  gas  that  may  be  formed  by  the  union  of  the  carbon 
of  gas  or  vapor  with  part  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air. 

The  various  mixtures  as  between  air  and  gas,  or  air  and  vapor, 
with  the  proportion  of  the  products  of  combustion  left  in  the  cyl- 
20 


THEORY  OF  THE  GAS   AND   GASOLINE-ENGINE  21 

inder  from  a  previous  combustion,  form  the  elements  to  be  con- 
sidered in  estimating  the  amount  of  pressure  that  may  be  obtained 
by  their  combustion  and  expansive  force. 

The  working  process  of  the  explosive  motor  may  be  divided  into 
three  principle  types: 

1.  Motors  with  charges  igniting  at  constant  volume  without 
compression,  such  as  the  Lenoir,  Hugon,  and  other  similar  types 
now  abandoned  as  wasteful  in  fuel  and  effect. 

2.  Motors  with  charges  igniting  at  constant  pressure  with  com- 
pression, in  which  a  receiver  is  charged  by  a  pump  and  the  gases 
burned  while  being  admitted  to  the  motor  cylinder. 

Types  of  the  Simon  and  Brayton  engine. 

3.  Motors  with  charges  igniting  at  constant  volume  with  vari- 
able compression.      Types  of  the  later  two  and  four-cycle  motors 
with  compression  of  the  indrawn  charge;   limited  in  the  two-cycle 
type  and  variable  in  the  four-cycle  type  with  the  ratios  of  the  clear- 
ance space  in  the  cylinder. 

The  explosive  motor  of  greatest  efficiency. 

The  phenomena  of  the  brilliant  light  and  its  accompanying  heat 
at  the  moment  of  explosion  have  been  witnessed  in  the  experiments 
of  Dugald  Clerk  in  England,  the  illumination  lasting  throughout 
the  stroke;  but  in  regard  to  time  in  a  four-cycle  engine,  the  in- 
candescent state  exists  only  one-quarter  of  the  running  time.  Thus 
the  time  interval,  together  with  the  non-conductibility  of  the  gases, 
makes  the  phenomena  of  a  high-temperature  combustion  within 
the  comparatively  cool  walls  of  a  cylinder  a  practical  possibility. 

THE   ISOTHERMAL   LAW 

The  natural  laws,  long  since  promulgated  by  Boyle,  Gay 
Lussac,  and  others,  on  the  subject  of  the  expansion  and  com- 
pression of  gases  by  force  and  by  heat,  and  their  variable 
pressures  and  temperatures  when  confined,  are  conceded  to  be 
practically  true  and  applicable  to  all  gases,  whether  single,  mixed, 
or  combined. 

The  law  formulated  by  Boyle  only  relates  to  the  compression 
and  expansion  of  gases  without  a  change  of  temperature,  and  is 
stated  in  these  words: 


22  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL-ENGINES        i  ', 

//  the  temperature  of  a  gas  be  kept  constant,  its  pressure  or  elastic 
force  will  vary  inversely  as  the  volume  it  occupies. 

It  is  expressed  in  the  formula  PxV  =  C,  or  pressure  X volume  = 

C  C 

constant.     Hence,  —  =  V  and  —  =  P. 

Thus  the  curve  formed  by  increments  of  pressure  during  the 
expansion  or  compression  of  a  given  volume  of  gas  without  change 
of  temperature  is  designated  as  the  isothermal  curve  in  which  the 
volume  multiplied  by  the  pressure  is  a  constant  value  in  expansion, 
and  inversely  the  pressure  divided  by  the  volume  is  a  constant 
value  in  compressing  a  gas. 

But  as  compression  and  expansion  of  gases  require  force  for  their 
accomplishment  mechanically,  or  by  the  application  or  abstraction 
of  heat  chemically,  or  by  convection,  a  second  condition  becomes 
involved,  which  was  formulated  into  a  law  of  thermodynamics  by 
Gay  Lussac  under  the  following  conditions: 

A  given  volume  of  gas  under  a  free  piston  expands  by  heat  and 
contracts  by  the  loss  of  heat,  its  volume  causing  a  proportional 
movement  of  a  free  piston  equal  to  ^3  part  of  the  cylinder  volume 
for  each  degree  Centigrade  difference  in  temperature,  or  -%\^  part 
of  its  volume  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit. 

With  a  fixed  piston  (constant  volume),  the  pressure  is  increased 
or  decreased  by  an  increase  or  decrease  of  heat  in  the  same  propor- 
tion of  2T^  part  of  its  pressure  for  each  degree  Centigrade,  or  4-^ 
part  of  its  pressure  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit  change  in  tempera- 
ture. 

This  is  the  natural  sequence  of  the  law  of  mechanical  equivalent, 
which  is  a  necessary  deduction  from  the  principle  that  nothing  in 
nature  can  be  lost  or  wasted,  for  all  the  heat  that  is  imparted  to 
or  abstracted  from  a  gaseous  body  must  be  accounted  for,  either 
as  heat  or  its  equivalent  transformed  into  some  other  form  of 
energy. 

In  the  case  of  a  piston  moving  in  a  cylinder  by  the  expansive 
force  of  heat  in  a  gaseous  body,  all  the  heat  expended  in  expansion 
of  the  gas  is  turned  into  work;  the  balance  must  be  accounted  for 
in  absorption  by  the  cylinder  or  radiation. 

This  theory  is  equally  applicable  to  the  cooling  of  gases  by 


THEORY   OF   THE   GAS   AND    GASOLINE-ENGINE 


23 


abstraction  of  heat  or  by  cooling  due  to  expansion  by  the  motion 
of  a  piston. 

The  denominators  of  these  heat  fractions  of  expansion  or  con- 
traction represent  the  absolute  zero  of  cold  below  the  freezing-point 
of  water,  and  read  -  273°  C.  or  --  492.66°-  -  460.66°  F.  below 
zero;  and  these  are  the  starting-points  of  reference  in  computing 
the  heat  expansion  in  gas-engines. 

According  to  Boyle's  law,  called  the  first  law  of  gases,  there 
are  but  two  characteristics  of  a  gas  and  their  variations  to  be  con- 
sidered, viz.,  volume  and  pressure:  while  by  the  law  of  Gay  Lussac, 
called  the  second  law  of  gases,  a  third  is  added,  consisting  of  the 


ABSOLUTE  PRESSURE  IN  LBS.PER  SQ.  IN. 

—  KJtu^OiO*-J  00  <D  O  —  •  10  CO  4>.  ui  CTi  ~J  CC 
0  OOOOOO  0000  OOOOOOC 

1320] 

c 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\  2 

17 

c 

\ 

\ 

V. 

Vo 

\ 

^ 

s 

V-- 

X 

& 

\ 

\h 

0.5 

C 

\ 

S*-r 

^ 

X 

^ 

\ 

^ 

•——  . 

r— 

^ 

^5: 

= 

:=a= 

=H 

^M 

ATMOSPHERIC 
LINES 


0         10        20         30       40        50         60        70       80        90    100 

VOLUME 

FIG.  1. — Diagram  Isothermal  and  Adiabatic  lines. 

value  of  the  absolute  temperature,  counting  from  absolute  zero  to 
the  temperatures  at  which  the  operations  take  place. 

This  is  the  Adiabatic  law. 

The  ratio  of  the  variation  of  the  three  conditions — volume, 
pressure,  and  heat — from  the  absolute  zero  temperature  has  a 
certain  rate,  in  which  the  volume  multiplied  by  the  pressure  and 
the  product  divided  by  the  absolute  temperature  equals  the  ratio 
of  expansion  for  each  degree. 

If  a  volume  of  air  is  contained  in  a  cylinder  having  a  piston  and 
fitted  with  an  indicator,  the  piston,  if  moved  to  and  fro,  will  alter- 


24  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL-ENGINES 

nately  compress  and  expand  the  air,  and  the  indicator  pencil  will 
trace  a  line  or  lines  upon  the  card,  which  lines  register  the  change 
of  pressure  and  volume  occurring  in  the  cylinder.  If  the  piston  is 
perfectly  free  from  leakage,  and  it  be  supposed  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  is  kept  quite  constant,  then  the  line  so  traced  is  called 
an  Isothermal  line,  and  the  pressure  at  any  point  when  multiplied 
by  the  volume  is  a  constant  according  to  Boyle's  law, 

pv  =  a  constant. 

If,  however,  the  piston  is  moved  in  very  rapidly,  the  air  will  not 
remain  at  constant  temperature,  but  the  temperature  will  increase 
because  work  has  been  done  upon  the  air,  and  the  heat  has  no  time 
to  escape  by  conduction.  If  no  heat  whatever  is  lost  by  any  cause, 
the  line  will  be  traced  over  and  over  again  by  the  indicator  pencil, 
the  cooling  by  expansion  doing  work  precisely  equalling  the  heating 
by  compression.  This  is  the  line  of  no  transmission  of  heat,  there- 
fore, known  as  Adiabatic. 

The  expansion  of  a  gas  ^rs"  °f  ^s  volume  for  every  degree 
Centigrade,  added  to  its  temperature,  is  equal  to  the  decimal  .00366, 
the  coefficient  of  expansion  for  Centigrade  units.  To  any  given 
volume  of  a  gas,  its  expansion  may  be  computed  by  multiplying 
the  coefficient  by  the  number  of  degrees,  and  by  reversing  the  process 
the  degree  of  acquired  heat  may  be  obtained  approximately.  These 
methods  are  not  strictly  in  conformity  with  the  absolute  mathe- 
matical formula,  because  there  is  a  small  increase  in  the  increment 
of  expansion  of  a  dry  gas,  and  there  is  also  a  slight  difference  in 
the  increment  of  expansion  due  to  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  and 
to  the  vapor  of  water  formed  by  the  union  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen in  the  combustion  chamber  of  explosive-engines. 

The  ratio  of  expansion  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  is  derived  from 
the  absolute  temperature  below  the  freezing-point  of  water  (32°) 

to  correspond  with  the  Centigrade  scale;  therefore  ~^^~^  =  .0020297, 


the  ratio  of  expansion  from  32°  for  each  degree  rise  in  temperature 
on  the  Fahrenheit  scale. 

As  an  example,  if  the  temperature  of  any  volume  of  air  or  gas  at 
constant  volume  is  raised,  say  from  60°  to  2000°  F.,  the  increase  in 

temperature  will  be  1940°.      The  ratio  will  be  -       -=  .0019206. 

oJU.oo 


THEORY  OF  THE  GAS   AND  GASOLINE-ENGINE  25 

Then  by  the  formula: 

Ratio  X acquired  temp.  X initial  pressure  =  the  gauge  pressure; 
and  .  0019206  X 1940°  X 14 . 7  -  54 . 77  Ibs. 

By    another     formula,   a    convenient    ratio    is    obtained    by 

absolute  pressure          14.7  .  „. 

-  or  Eor>  gfl=. 028233;   then,  using  the  difference 
absolute  temp.          520.66 

of  temperature  as  before,  .028233  X  1940°  =  54.77  Ibs.  pressure. 
By  another  formula,  leaving  out  a  small  increment  due  to  spe- 
cific heat  at  high  temperatures: 

Atmospheric    pressure  X  absolute    temp.  +  acquired    temp. 

Absolute  temp.  +  initial  temp. 

absolute  pressure  due  to  the  acquhed  temperature,  from  which 
the  atmospheric  pressure  is  deducted  for  the  gauge  pressure. 

14. 7X460. 66°  +  2000° 
Using    the    foregoing    example,   we    have   -         460  66  +  60° 

=  69.47-14.7  =  54.77,    the   gauge    pressure,    460.66    being   the 
absolute  temperature  for  zero  Fahrenheit. 

For  obtaining  the  volume  of  expansion  of  a  gas  from  a  given 
increment  of  heat,  we  have  the  approximate  formula : 

Volume  X  absolute  temp.  +  acquired  temp. 

II.  -       — rr— i— T  -— -.  ,  —  =  heated  volume. 

Absolute  temp.  +  initial  temp. 

In  applying  this  formula  to  the  foregoing  example,  the  figures 
become : 

_      460. 66° +  2000° 

LX^60766T60°~  =4  726°4  VolumeS' 
From  this  last  term  the  gauge  pressure  may  be  obtained  as  follows : 

III.  4.72604X14.7  =  69.47   Ibs.    absolute -14. 7    Ibs.    atmos- 
pheric pressure  =  54 . 77  Ibs.  gauge  pressure;  which  is  the  theoretical 
pressure  due  to  heating  air  in  a  confined  space,  or  at  constant  vol- 
ume from  60°  to  2000°  F. 

By  inversion  of  the  heat  formula  for  absolute  pressure  we  have 
the  formula  for  the  acquired  heat,  derived  from  combustion  at 
constant  volume  from  atmospheric  pressure  to  gauge  pressure  plus 
atmospheric  pressure  as  derived  from  Example  I.,  by  which  the 
expression 

absolute  pressure  X  absolute  temp.  +  initial  temp. 

initial  absolute  pressure 
=  absolute  temperature  +  temperature  of  combustion,  from  which 


26  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AN.D  OIL-ENGINES 

the  acquired  temperature  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the  absolute 
temperature. 

Then,  for  Example, 5MLX^6f          =2460.66,  and  2460.66 

-460.66  =  2000°,  the  theoretical  heat  of  combustion.  The  drop- 
ping of  terminal  decimals  makes  a  small  decimal  difference  in  the 
result  in  the  different  formulas. 


HEAT   AND    ITS   WORK 

By  Joule's  law  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  whenever 
heat  is  imparted  to  an  elastic  body,  as  air  or  gas,  energy  is  generated 
and  mechanical  work  produced  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  or  gas. 
When  the  heat  is  imparted  by  combustion  within  a  cylinder  con- 
taining a  movable  piston,  the  mechanical  work  becomes  an  amount 
measurable  by  the  observed  pressure  and  movement  of  the  piston. 

The  heat  generated  by  the  explosive  elements  and  the  expan- 
sion of  the  non-combining  elements  of  nitrogen  and  water  vapor 
that  may  have  been  injected  into  the  cylinder  as  moisture  in  the 
air,  and  the  water  vapor  formed  by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  gas,  all  add  to  the  energy  of  the  work 
from  their  expansion  by  the  heat  of  internal  combustion. 

As  against  this,  the  absorption  of  heat  by  the  walls  of  the 
cylinder,  the  piston,  and  cylinder-head  or  clearance  walls,  becomes 
a  modifying  condition  in  the  force  imparted  to  the  moving  piston. 

It  is  found  that  when  any  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  gas  or 
hydrocarbon  vapor  is  fired,  the  pressure  falls  far  short  of  the  pressure 
computed  from  the  theoretical  effect  of  the  heat  produced,  and 
from  gauging  the  expansion  of  the  contents  of  a  cylinder. 

It  is  now  well  known  that  in  practice  the  high  efficiency  which  is 
promised  by  theoretical  calculation  is  never  realized;  but  it  must 
always  be  remembered  that  the  heat  of  combustion  is  the  real  agent, 
and  that  the  gases  and  vapors  are  but  the  medium  for  the  conversion 
of  inert  elements  of  power  into  the  activity  of  energy  by  their 
chemical  union. 

The  theory  of  combustion  has  been  the  leading  stimulus  to  large 
expectations  with  inventors  and  constructors  of  explosive  motors; 
its  entanglement  with  the  modifying  elements  in  practice  has  de- 


THEORY  OF   THE  GAS  AND  GASOLINE   ENGINE  27 

layed  the  best  development  in  construction,  and  as  yet  no  positive 
design  of  best  form  or  action  seems  to  have  been  accomplished; 
although  great  progress  has  been  made  during  the  past  five  years  in 
the  development  of  speed,  economy,  and  the  size  of  the  individual 
units  of  this  new  power. 

One  of  the  most  serious  entanglements  in  the  practical  develop- 
ment of  pressure  due  to  the  theoretical  computations  of  the  pressure 
value  of  the  full  heat  is  probably  caused  by  imparting  the  heat  of  the 
fresh  charge  to  the  balance  of  the  previous  charge  that  has  been 
cooled  by  expansion  from  the  maximum  pressure  to  near  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  of  the  exhaust.  The  retardation  in  the  velocity 
of  combustion  of  perfectly  mixed  elements  is  now  well  known  from 
experimental  trials  with  measured  quantities;  but  the  principal 
difficulty  in  applying  these  conditions  to  the  practical  work  of  an 
explosive  engine  where  a  necessity  for  a  large  clearance  space  cannot 
be  obviated,  is  in  the  inability  to  obtain  a  maximum  effect  from 
the  imperfect  mixture  and  the  mingling  of  the  products  of  the  last 
explosion  with  the  new  mixture,  which  produces  a  clouded  condition 
that  makes  the  ignition  of  the  mass  irregular  or  chattering,  as  ob- 
served in  the  expansion  lines  of  indicator  cards;  but  this  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  reaction  of  the  spring  in  the  indicator. 

Stratification  of  the  mixture  has  been  claimed  as  taking  place 
in  the  clearance  chamber  of  the  cylinder;  but  this  is  not  satisfactory, 
in  view  of  the  vortical  effect  of  the  violent  injection  of  the  air  and 
gas  or  vapor  mixture.  It  certainly  cannot  become  a  perfect  mixt- 
ure in  the  time  of  a  stroke  of  a  high-speed  motor  of  the  two-cycle 
class.  In  a  four-cycle  engine,  making  300  revolutions  per  minute, 
the  injection  and  compression  take  place  in  one-fifth  of  a  second- 
far  too  short  a  time  for  a  perfect  infusion  of  the  elements  of  com- 
bustion. 

In  an  experimental  way,  the  velocity  of  explosion  of  a  perfect 
mixture  of  2  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  1  volume  of  oxygen  has  been 
found  to  approximate  65  feet  per  second;  and  for  equal  volumes  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  32  feet  per  second;  with  1  volume  coal-gas 
to  5  volumes  air,  3}  feet  per  second ;  1  volume  coal-gas  to  6  volumes 
of  air,  1  foot  per  second;  and  with  an  increasing  proportion  of  air, 
10  to  9  inches  per  second.  These  velocities  were  obtained  in  tubes 
fired  at  one  end  only.  When  the  ignition  was  made  in  a  closed  tube, 


28 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


so  that  compression  was  produced  by  the  expansion  from  com- 
bustion, the  velocity  was  largely  increased;  and  with  compressed 
mixtures  a  great  increase  of  velocity  was  obtained  over  the  above- 
stated  figures,  as  has  been  proved  in  motors  running  at  2000  revolu- 
tions per  minute. 

The  different  values  of  time,  pressure,  and  computed  heat  of 
combustion  are  shown  in  Table  I.,  and  graphically  compared  in  the 
diagram  (Fig.  2). 

The  mixtures  were  Glasgow,  Scotland,  coal-gas  and  air.  The 
table  and  the  diagram  (Fig.  2)  make  an  excellent  study  of  the  con- 


o 

-       90 

gu.80 
Sf70 

ggeo 

I   ?50 

0  •* 

1  SI  40 

I" 

I    20 

\     10 


IXTURES  USED.  GLASGOW  COAL  GAS  AND  AIR 


.30  SECONDS 


FIG.  2. — Diagram  of  moments  of  combustion  in  a  closed  chamber, 
constant  volume. 

ditions  of  time  and  pressure,  as  well  as  also  of  the  control  of  the 
work  of  a  gas-engine,  by  varying  the  proportions  of  the  mixture. 

TABLE  I. — EXPLOSION  AT  CONSTANT  VOLUME  IN  A  CLOSED  CHAMBER. 


Dia- 
gram 
curve 
Fig.  2. 

Mixture  injected. 

Time  of 
explosion. 
Second. 

Gauge 
pressure. 
Pounds  per 
square  inch. 

Computed 
temperature, 
Fahr. 

a 

volume  gas  to  13  volumes  air. 

0.28 

52 

1,916° 

b 

a     a    n 

0.18 

63 

2,309 

c 

a         a     "9        «      ,  « 

0.13 

69 

2,523 

d 

«                       «            «             y                      i<                        « 

0.07 

89 

3,236 

e 

"         "    "     5        "         " 

0.05 

96 

3,484 

The  irregularity  of  the  explosive  curves  in  the  diagram  is  fail- 
evidence  of  imperfect  diffusion  of  the  gas  and  air  mixture  at  the 
moment  of  combustion,  assuming  that  the  indicator  was  in  perfect 
action. 

Experiments  with  mixtures  of  coal-gas  and  air  (Fig.  3),  made  at 


THEORY  OF  THE   GAS  AND   GASOLINE-ENGINE 


29 


Oldham,  England,  show  a  slight  variation  of  effect,  which  is  prob- 
ably due  to  different  proportions  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  the 


MIXTURES  USED.  OLDHAM  COAL  GAS  AND  AIR 


FIG.  3. — Diagram  of  moments  of  combustion  in  a  closed  chamber, 
constant  volume. 

Oldham  gas,  with  the  same  elements  in  the  Glasgow  gas.  In 
Table  II.  the  injection  temperature  is  given,  which  in  itself  is  not  im- 
portant further  than  as  a  basis  for  computing  the  theoretical  temper- 
ature of  combustion. 

A  record  of  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  its  ex- 
tremes would  be  valuable  in  showing  the  variation  in  explosive 
effect  due  to  the  vapor  of  water  derived  from  the  air  under  different 
hygrometric  conditions. 

TABLE  II. — EXPLOSION  AT  CONSTANT  VOLUME  IN  A  CLOSED  CHAMBER. 


Dia- 
gram 
curve 
Fig.  3. 

Mixture  injected. 

Temp,  of 
injection, 
Fahr. 

Time 
of  explo- 
sion. 
Second. 

Observed 
gauge 
pressure. 
Pounds. 

Com- 
puted 
temp. 
Fahr. 

a 

volume  gas  to  14  volumes  air.       64° 

0.45 

40. 

1,483 

b 

13 

51 

0.31 

51.5 

1,859 

c 

12 

51 

0.24 

60. 

2,195 

d 

11 

51 

0.17 

61. 

2,228 

e 

9 

62 

0.08 

78. 

2,835 

f 

7 

62 

0.06 

87. 

3,151 

g 

6 

51 

0.04 

90. 

3,257 

h 

5 

51 

0.055 

91. 

3,293 

i 

4 

66 

0.16 

80. 

2,871 

| 

In  an  examination  of  the  times  of  explosion  and  the  corre- 
sponding pressures  in  both  tables,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  mixture  of 
1  part  gas  to  6  parts  air  is  the  most  effective  and  will  give  the 
highest  mean  pressure  in  a  gas-engine. 


30 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND    OIL-ENGINES 


In  this  diagram  the  undulations  of  the  rising  curves  due  to 
irregular  firing  of  the  mixture  are  well  marked.  There  is  a  limit 
to  the  relative  proportions  of  illuminating  gas  and  air  mixture  that 
is  explosive,  somewhat  variable,  depending  upon  the  proportion 
of  hydrogen  in  the  gas.  With  ordinary  coal-gas,  1  of  gas  to  15 
parts  air;  and  on  the  lower  end  of  the  scale,  1  volume  of  gas  to  2 
parts  air,  are  non-explosive.  With  gasoline  vapor  the  explosive 
effect  ceases  at  1  to  16,  and  a  saturated  mixture  of  equal  volumes 
of  vapor  and  air  will  not  explode,  while  the  most  intense  explosive 
effect  is  from  a  mixture  of  1  part  vapor  to  9  parts  air.  In  the  use 
of  gasoline  and  air  mixtures  from  a  carburetter,  the  best  effect  is 
from  1  part  saturated  air  to  8  parts  free  air. 

TABLE  III. — PROPERTIES  AND  EXPLOSIVE  TEMPERATURE  OF  A  MIXTURE  OF  ONE 
PART  OF  ILLUMINATING  GAS  OF  660  THERMAL  UNITS  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  WITH 
VARIOUS  PROPORTIONS  OF  AIR  WITHOUT  MIXTURE  OF  CHARGE  WITH  THE 
PRODUCTS  OF  A  PREVIOUS  EXPLOSION. 


0 

Specific  Heat. 

•V 

Q 

•  i  ^ 

&l 

|s 

Heat  Units  Required 
to  Raise  1  Ib.  1° 

Heat  to 

Is 

.2 

H^l 

If 

<§l 

Fahrenheit. 

Raise  One 
Cubic 

3 

Ratio, 

II 

°§6 

'I  >, 

•JJ  g 

Foot  of 

•tjfi 

Col. 

o'S 

•2£  *  o 

li 

|| 
PH 

Constant 
Pressure. 

Constant 
Volume. 

Mixture 
1°  Fahr. 

F 

1 

iff! 

6  to  1  

.074195 

.2668 

.1913 

.014189 

94.28 

6644.6 

.465 

3090 

7  to  1  .... 

.075012 

.2628 

.1882 

.014116 

82. 

5844.4 

.518 

3027 

8to  1  

.075647 

.2598 

.1858 

.014059 

73.33 

5216.1 

.543 

2832 

9  to  1 

076155 

2575 

1846 

014013 

66 

4709  9 

56 

2637 

10  to  1 

076571 

2555 

1825 

013976 

60 

4293 

575 

2468 

11  to  1 

076917 

2540 

1813 

013945 

55 

3944 

585 

2307 

12  to  1  

.077211 

.2526 

.1803 

.013922 

50.77 

3646.7 

.58 

2115 

!           ; 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  and  air  mixture  as  given  in 
Col.  2  is  found  by  adding  the  number  of  volumes  of  air  multiplied 
by  its  weight,  .0807,  to  one  volume  of  gas  of  weight  .035  pound 
per  cubic  foot  and  dividing  by  the  total  number  of  volumes;  for 

example,  as  in  the  table  6  X  .0807  =  lLy~  =  .074195  as  in  the  first 

line,  and  so  on  for  any  mixture  or  for  other  gases  of  different  spe- 
cific weight  per  cubic  foot.  The  heat  units  evolved  by  combustion 
of  the  mixture  (Col.  6)  are  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  heat 


THEORY  OF  THE   GAS  AND  GASOLINE-ENGINE  31 

units  in  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  by  the  total  proportion  of  the  mixture, 

=  94.28  as  in  the  first  line  of  the  table.     Col.  5  is  obtained 

by  multiplying  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  mixture  in  Col.  2 
by  the  specific  heat  at  constant  volume  (Col.  4),  ^  g  =  Col.  7 

the  total  heat  ratio,  of  which  Col.  8  gives  the  usual  combustion 
efficiency -Col.  7X  by  Col.  8  gives  the  absolute  rise  in  tempera- 
ture of  a  pure  mixture,  as  given  in  Col.  9. 

The  many  recorded  experiments  made  to  solve  the  discrepancy 
between  the  theoretical  and  the  actual  heat  development  and 
resulting  pressures  in  the  cylinder  of  an  explosive  motor,  to  which 
much  discussion  has  been  given  as  to  the  possibilities  of  dissociation 
and  the  increased  specific  heat  of  the  elements  of  combustion  and 
non-combustion,  as  well,  also,  of  absorption  and  radiation  of  heat, 
have  as  yet  furnished  no  satisfactory  conclusion  as  to  what  really 
takes  place  within  the  cylinder  walls. 

There  seems  to  be  very  little  known  about  dissociation,  and 
somewhat  vague  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  phe- 
nomenon. The  fact  is,  nevertheless,  apparent  as  shown  in  the  pro- 
duction of  water  and  other  producer  gases  by  the  use  of  steam  in 
contact  with  highly  incandescent  fuel.  It  is  known  that  a  maximum 
explosive  mixture  of  pure  gases,  as  hydrogen  and  oxygen  or  car- 
bonic oxide  and  oxygen,  suffers  a  contraction  of  one-third  their 
volume  by  combustion  to  their  compounds,  steam  or  carbonic  acid. 
In  the  explosive  mixtures  in  the  cylinder  of  a  motor,  however,  the 
combining  elements  form  a  so  small  proportion  of  the  contents  of 
the  cylinder  that  the  shrinkage  of  their  volume  amounts  to  no  more 
than  three  per  cent,  of  the  cylinder  volume.  This  by  no  means 
accounts  for  the  great  heat  and  pressure  differences  between  the 
theoretical  and  actual  effects. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE    UTILIZATION    OF    HEAT    AND    ITS    EFFICIENCY    IN    EXPLOSIVE 

MOTORS 

THE  utilization  of  heat  in  any  heat-engine  has  long  been  a 
theme  of  inquiry  and  experiment  with  scientists  and  engineers, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  best  practical  conditions  and 
construction  of  heat-engines  that  would  represent  the  highest 
efficiency  or  the  nearest  approach  to  the  theoretical  value  of  heat, 
as  measured  by  empirical  laws  that  have  been  derived  from  experi- 
mental researches  relating  to  its  ultimate  value.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  steam-engine  returns  only  from  12  to  18  per  cent,  of  the 
power  due  to  the  heat  generated  by  the  fuel,  about  25  per  cent, 
of  the  total  heat  being  lost  in  the  chimney,  the  only  use  of  which  is 
to  create  a  draught  for  the  iire;  the  balance,  some  6.0  per  cent.,  is 
lost  in  the  exhaust  and  by  radiation.  The  problem  of  utmost 
utilization  of  force  in  steam  has  nearly  reached  its  limit. 

The  internal-combustion  system  of  creating  power  is  com- 
paratively new  in  practice,  and  is  but  just  settling  into  definite 
shape  by  repeated  trials  and  modification  of  details,  so  as  to  give 
somewhat  reliable  data  as  to  what  may  be  expected  from  the 
rival  of  the  steam-engine  as  a  prime  mover. 

For  small  powers,  the  gas,  gasoline,  and  petroleum-oil  engines 
are  forging  ahead  at  a  rapid  rate,  filling  the  thousand  wants  of  manu- 
facture and  business  for  a  power  that  does  not  require  expensive 
care,  that  is  perfectly  safe  at  all  times,  that  can  be  used  in  any  place 
in  the  wide  world  to  which  its  concentrated  fuel  can  be  conveyed, 
and  that  has  eliminated  the  constant  handling  of  crude  fuel  and 
water. 

The  utilization  of  heat  in  a  gas-engine  is  mainly  due  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  products  entering  into  combustion  .are  dis- 
tributed in  relation  to  the  movement  of  the  piston. 

The  investigation  of  the  foremost  exponent  of  the  theory  of 

32 


HEAT  AND  ITS  EFFICIENCY  IN  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS      33 

the  explosive  motor  was  prophetic  in  consideration  of  the  later 
realization  of  the  best  conditions  under  which  these  motors  can  be 
made  to  meet  the  requirements  of  economy  and  practicability. 
As  early  as  1862,  Beau  de  Rocha  announced,  in  regard  to  the 
coming  power,  that  four  requisites  were  the  basis  of  operation  for 
economy  and  best  effect. 

1.  The  greatest  possible  cylinder  volume  with  the  least  possible 
cooling  surface. 

2.  The  greatest  possible  rapidity  of  expansion.     Hence,  high 
speed. 

3.  The  greatest  possible  expansion.     Long  stroke. 

4.  The  greatest  possible  pressure  at  the  commencement  of  expan- 
sion.    High  compression. 

In  the  two-cycle  motors  of  the  early  or  Lenoir  type,  the  gas  or 
vapor  and  air  mixtures  were  drawn  in  during  a  part  of  the  stroke, 
fired,  expanded  with  the 
motion  of  the  piston,  and 
exhausted  by  the  return 
stroke.  The  proportions  of 
the  indraught  to  the  stroke  • 

of  the  piston,  and  the  vol- 

FIG.  4. — Lenoir  type  of  indicator  card. 

ume    of    the    clearance   or 

combustion  chamber,  as  it  is  usually  called,  have  been  subject  to 

a  vast  amount  of  experiment  and  practical  trial,  in  an  endeavor 

to  bring  the  heat  value  of  their  power  up  to  its  highest  possible 

limit. 

To  this  class  belonged  some  of  the  earlier  gas-engines;  their 
indicator  cards  have  a  typical  representation  in  Fig.  4. 

The  earlier  engines  of  this  class  used  as  high  as  96  cubic  feet  of 
illuminating  gas  per  horse-power  per  hour.  The  consumption  of 
gas  fell  off  by  improvements  to  70  cubic  feet,  and  finally  dropped  to 
44  and  36  cubic  feet  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour  in  the 
various  modifications  following  the  early  trials,  all  of  which  have 
dropped  out  of  use. 

The  efficiency  of  this  class  of  gas-engines  seldom  reached  20 
per  cent.,  of  the  heat  value  of  the  gas  used,  while  in  the  compression 
types  of  two  and  four  cycle  motors  there  are  possibilities  of  over 
40  per  cent.  The  total  efficiency  of  the  gas  or  vapor  entering  into 


34  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

combustion  in  an  internal-heat  engine  is  variable,  depending  upon 
its  constituent-combining  elements  and  the  degree  of  temperature 
produced.  The  efficiency  due  to  heat  only  varies  as  the  difference 
between  the  initial  temperature  of  the  explosive  mixture  and  the 
temperature  of  combustion;  and  as  this  varies  in  actual  practice 
from  1400°  to  2500°  F.,  then  the  reciprocal  of  the  absolute  heat  of 
the  initial  charge,  divided  by  the  assumed  heat  of  combustion, 

TT  _  TT1 

would  represent  the  total  efficiency.     The  formula  —  ^  —  represents 

this  condition,  "in  which  H  is  the  absolute  heat  of  combustion, 
and  H1  is  the  absolute  initial  temperature,"  so  that  if  the  operation 
of  the  heat  cycle  was  between  60°  and  1400°  F.,  the  equation  would 


be  TTTTT—  TTT  =  .279  and  1  —  .  279  =  .72  per  cent.     But  this  cannot 

represent  a  working  cycle  from  the  change  in  the  specific  heat  of  the 
gaseous  contents  of  a  cylinder  while  undergoing  expansion  by  the 
movement  of  a  piston. 

The  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  is  .1685,  and  at  con- 

2375 
stant  pressure  is  .2375.     Their  ratio  '       ,  =  1.408.     The  ratios  of 


the  other  elements  entering  into  combustion  in  a  gas-engine  are 
slightly  less  than  for  air;  but  the  ratio  for  air  is  near  enough  for  all 
practical  operations.  The  formula  for  the  application  of  the  con- 

(TT1\ 
1.408  —  );  or,  as  for 

(v,w    r  TCV,W  ' 

1>408    1400  +  460  )  =  -3928'  and    l--3928  = 

.6071,  or  60  per  cent. 

As  the  temperature  cannot  be  utilized  for  work  from  the  excess 
of  heat  in  the  products  of  combustion  when  the  expansion  has 
reached  the  atmospheric  line,  then  the  practical  amount  of  expan- 
sion and  the  heat  of  combustion  at  the  point  of  exhaust  must  be 
considered.  In  practice,  the  measured  heat  of  the  exhaust  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  plus  the  additional  heat  due  to  the  terminal  pres- 
sure, becomes  a  factor  in  the  equation;  and,  assuming  this  to  be 
950°  F.  in  a  well-regulated  motor,  the  equation  for  the  above  exam- 

(qp;0  —  460\     4QO 
1.408  X14QQ_46o)=^5  =  -  521X1.408  =  .733,  and 


HEAT  AND   ITS  EFFICIENCY  IN  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS      35 

1  —  .733  =  .26,  or  an  efficiency  of  26  per  cent.  The  greater  differ- 
ence in  temperature,  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  the 
efficiency. 

In  this  way  efficiencies  are  worked  out  through  intricate  formulas 
for  a  variety  of  theoretical  and  unknown  conditions  of  combustion 
in  the  cylinder:  ratios  of  clearance  and  cylinder  volume,  and  the 
uncertain  condition  of  the  products  of  combustion  left  from  the 
last  impulse  and  the  wall  temperature.  But  they  are  of  but  little 
value,  except  as  a  mathematical  inquiry  as  to  possibilities.  The 
real  commercial  efficiency  of  a  gas  or  gasoline-engine  depends  upon 
the  volume  of  gas  or  liquid  at  some  assigned  cost,  required  per 
actual  brake  horse-power  per  hour,  in  which  an  indicator  card  should 
show  that  the  mechanical  action  of  the  valve  gear  and  ignition  was 
as  perfect  as  practicable,  and  that  the  ratio  of  clearance,  space,  and 
cylinder  volume  gave  a  satisfactory  terminal  pressure  and  com- 


FIG.  5. — Comparative  card,  Lenoir  and  perfect  expansion. 

pression — the  difference  between  the  power  figured  from  the  indica- 
tor card  and  the  brake  power  being  the  friction  loss  of  the  engine. 

In  practice,  the  heat  value  of  the  gas  per  cubic  foot  may  vary 
from  30  per  cent,  with  illuminating  and  natural  gases  to  75  or  80 
per  cent,  as  between  good  illuminating  gas  and  producer  gas;  then, 
in  order  that  a  given  size  engine  should  maintain  its  rating,  a  larger 
volume  of  a  poorer  gas  should  be  swept  through  the  cylinder.  This 
requires  adjustment  of  the  areas  in  all  the  valves  to  give  an  ex- 
plosive motor  its  highest  efficiency  for  the  kind  of  fuel  that  is  to  be 
used. 

The  practical  effect  of  the  work  done  by  the  half-cycle  in  the 
earlier  type  of  the  two-cycle  engine  is  graphically  shown  in  Fig.  5, 


36  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

in  which  /,  d  represents  the  stroke  of  the  piston;  the  dotted  line, 
the  indicator  card;  and  the  space  in  the  lines,  a,  6,  c,  d,  the  ideal 
diagram  of  a  perfect  gas  exhausting  at  the  point  d,  in  its  incomplete 
adiabatic  expansion.  In  the  valuation  of  .such  a  card,  the  depres- 
sion of  the  indraught  below  the  atmospheric  line  and  the  pressure  of 
the  exhaust  line  should  have  due  consideration  as  negative  quanti- 
ties to  be  deducted  from  the  pressure  values  above  the  atmospheric 
line.  This  class  of  engines  is  fast  becoming  obsolete  as  a  type. 

In  two-cycle  motors  of  the  compression  type  and  in  four-cycle 
motors  of  the  same  type,  the  efficiencies  are  greatly  advanced  by 
compression,  producing  a  more  complete  infusion  of  the  mixture 
of  gas  or  vapor  and  air,  quicker  firing,  and  far  greater  pressure  than 
is  possible  with  the  two-cycle  type  just  described. 

In  the  practical  operation  of  the  gas-engine  during  the  past 
twenty  years,  the  gas-consumption  efficiencies  per  indicated  horse- 
power have  gradually  risen  from  17  per  cent,  to  a  maximum  of  40 
per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  heat,  and  this  has  been  done  chiefly 
through  a  decreased  combustion  chamber  and  increased  compres- 
sion— the  compression  having  gradually  increased  in  practice  from 
30  Ibs.  per  square  inch  to  above  100;  but  there  seems  to  be  a  limit 
to  compression,  as  the  efficiency  ratio  decreases  with  greater  in- 
crease in  compression. 

It  has  been  shown  that  an  ideal  efficiency  of  33  per  cent,  for  38 
Ibs.  compression  will  increase  to  40  per  cent,  for  66  Ibs.,  and  43  per 
cent,  for  88  Ibs.  compression.  On  the  other  hand,  greater  com- 
pression means  greater  explosive  pressure  and  greater  strain  on 
the  engine  structure,  which  will  probably  retain  in  future  practice 
the  compression  between  the  limits  of  40  and  80  Ibs. 

In  experiments  made  by  Dugald  Clerk,  in  England,  with  a  com- 
bustion chamber  equal  to  0.6  of  the  space  swept  by  the  piston,  with 
a  compression  of  38  Ibs.,  the  consumption  of  gas  was  24  cubic  feet 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  With  0.4  compression  space 
and  61  Ibs.  compression,  the  consumption  of  gas  was  20  cubic  feet 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour;  and  with  0.34  compression 
space  and  87  Ibs.  compression,  the  consumption  of  gas  fell  to  14.8 
cubic  feet  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour — the  actual  efficien- 
cies being  respectively  17,  21,  and  25  per  cent.  This  was  with  a 
Crossley  four-cycle  engine. 


HEAT  AND   ITS   EFFICIENCY  IN   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS      37 


In  Fig.  6  is  represented  an  ideal  card  of  the  work  of  a  perfect 
compression  cycle  in  which  the  gases  are  compressed.  Additional 
pressure  is  instantly  developed  by  combustion  or  heat  at  constant 
volume,  and  then  allowed  to  expand  to  atmospheric  pressure — the 
curves  of  compression  and  ex- 
pansion being  adiabatic,  as  for 
a  dry  gas. 

In  this  diagram  the  lines  follow 
Carnot's  cycle,  in  which  the  whole 
heat  energy  is  represented  in  work. 
The  piston  stroke  commencing  at 
0,  compression  completed  at  D, 
pressure  augmented  from  D  to  F, 
expansion  doing  work  from  F  to 
B,  and  exhausting  along  the  at- 
mospheric line  B  A.  The  gases 


FIG.  6. — Diagram  of  a  perfect  cycle 
with  compression. 


in  this  case  expand  till  their  pressure  falls  to  the  atmospheric  line, 
and  their  whole  energy  is  supposed  to  be  utilized.  In  this  imagi- 
nary cycle,  no  heat  is  supposed  to  be  lost  by  absorption  of  walls 
of  a  cylinder  or  by  radiation,  and  no  back-pressure  during  exhaust 
or  friction  are  taken  into  account. 

The  efficiencies  in  regard  to  power  in  a  heat-engine  may  be 
divided  into  four  kinds,  of  which 

I.  The  first  is  known  as  the  maximum  theoretical  efficiency  of  a 
perfect  engine  (represented  by  the  lines  in  the  indicator  diagram, 

T,—  T0 
Fig.  6).     It  is  expressed  by  the  formula  —^ — -  and  shows  the  work 

of  a  perfect  cycle  in  an  engine  working  between  the  received  tem- 
perature +  absolute  temperature  (T,)  and  the  initial  atmospheric 
temperature  +  absolute  temperature  (T0). 

II.  The  second  is  the  actual  heat  efficiency,  or  the  ratio  of  the  heat 
turned  into  work  to  the  total  heat  received  by  the  engine.     It 
expresses  the  indicated  horse-power. 

III.  The  third  is  the  ratio  between  the  second  or  actual  heat 
efficiency  and  the  first  or  maximum  theoretical  efficiency  of  a  perfect 
cycle.     It  represents  the  greatest  possible  utilization  of  the  power 
of  heat  in  an  internal-combustion  engine. 

IV.  The  fourth  is  the  mechanical  efficiency.     This  is  the  ratio 


38  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

between  the  actual  horse-power  delivered  by  the  engine  through  a 
dynamometer  or  measured  by  a  brake  (brake  horse-power),  and  the 
indicated  horse-power.  The  difference  between  the  two  is  the  power 
lost  by  engine  friction. 

In  regard  to  the  general  heat  efficiency  of  the  materials  of  power 
in  explosive  engines,  we  find  that  with  good  illuminating  gas  the 
practical  efficiency  varies  from  25  to  40  per  cent.  ;  kerosene-motors, 
20  to  30;  gasoline-motors,  20  to  32;  acetylene,  25  to  35;  alcohol,  20 
to  30  per  cent,  of  their  heat  value.  The  great  variation  is  no  doubt 
due  to  imperfect  mixtures  and  variable  conditions  of  the  old  and  new 
charge  in  the  cylinder;  uncertainty  as  to  leakage  and  the  perfection 
of  combustion.  In  the  Diesel  motors  operating  under  high  pressure, 
up  to  nearly  500  pounds,  an  efficiency  of  36  per  cent,  is  claimed. 

On  general  principles  the  greater  difference  between  the  heat  of 
combustion  and  the  heat  at  exhaust  is  the  relative  measure  of  the 
heat  turned  into  work,  which  represents  the  degree  of  efficiency 
without  loss  during  expansion.  The  mathematical  formulas  apper- 
taining to  the  computation  of  the  element  of  heat  and  its  work  in 
an  explosive  engine  are  in  a  large  measure  dependent  upon  assumed 
values,  as  the  conditions  of  the  heat  of  combustion  are  made  uncer- 
tain by  the  mixing  of  the  fresh  charge  with  the  products  of  a  previous 
combustion,  and  by  absorption,  radiation,  and  leakage.  The  com- 
putation of  the  temperature  from  the  observed  pressure  may  be 
made  as  before  explained,  but  for  compression-engines  the  needed 
starting-points  for  computation  are  very  uncertain,  and  can  only 
be  approximated  from  the  exact  measure  and  value  of  the  elements 
of  combustion  in  a  cylinder  charge. 

Then  theoretically  the  absolute  efficiency  in  a  perfect  heat-engine 

T—  T 

is  represented  by  —  ™~~  ',  in  which  T  is  the  acquired  temperature  from 

absolute  zero;  Tn  the  final  absolute  temperature  after  expansion 
without  loss. 

Then,  for  example,  supposing  the  acquired  temperature  of  com- 
bustion in  a  cylinder  charge  was  raised  2000°  F.  from  60°  :  the  abso- 
lute temperature  twould  be  2000  +  60  +  460  =  2520°,  and  if  expanded 
to  the  initial  temperature  of  60°  without  loss  the  absolute  tempera- 


oprorv 

ture  of  expansion  will  be  60  +  460  =  520,  then  -          Q  —  =  .79  per 


HEAT  AND  ITS   EFFICIENCY   IN   EXPLOSIVE   MOTORS      39 

cent.,  the  theoretical  efficiency  for  the  above  range  of  temperature. 
In  adiabatic  compression  or  expansion,  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heat 
of  air  or  other  gases  becomes  a  logarithmic  exponent  of  both  com- 
pression and  expansion.  The  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume 
is  .1685  and  at  constant  pressure,  .2375  for  1  Ib.  in  weight;  water  = 

2375 

1.  for  1  Ib.     Then  i^7  =  the  ratio  y  -  1.408. 


Then  for  the  following  formulas  the  specific  heat  =KV=  .1685 
constant  volume,  and  Kp  =  .2375  constant  pressure. 

The  quantity  of  heat  in  thermal  units  given  by  an  impulse  of  an 
explosive  engine  is  Kv  (T-  t)=heat  units.  Then  using  the  fig- 
ures as  before,  .1685  X  (2520  -  520)  =  337  heat  units  per  pound 
of  the  initial  charge. 

The   heat   in   thermal   units   discharged  will  be  Kp  (^-t), 

(rn\  — 
-Y  ;  t  =  absolute  initial  temperature,  say  520°. 

Then  using  again  the  figures  as  before  and  assuming  that  T  = 


2,520°  F.,  then  T,=520  =  520  X  (log.  4.846  X  .7102)  = 


1594°  absolute,  and  1594  -  520  =  1074°  F.  Then  the  heat  in  thermal 
units  discharged  will  be  .2375  X  (1594-520)  =  .2375  X  1074  =  255 
heat  units. 

With  the  absolute  temperature  at  the  moment  of  exhaust  known, 
the  efficiency  of  the  working  cycle  may  be  known,  always  excepting 
the  losses  by  convection  through  the  walls  of  the  cylinder. 

T  —  t 
The  formula  for  this  efficiency  is:  eff.  =  1—  y  IT?  _.;  then  by 


substituting  the  figures  as  before,  1  —  1.408  0590- 520  =  2000 = 

X  1.408  =  .756,  and  1  -.756  =  24  per  cent. 

To  obtain  the  adiabatic  terminal  temperature  from  the  rela- 
tive volumes  of  clearance  and  expansion,  we  have  the  formula 

/VA-y-1     T,  V0 

\V~)  ^T*1'  ^n  which  y2  ig  the  ratio  of  expansion  in  terms  of 

the  charging  spacp  m  engines  of  the  Lenoir  type  to  the  whole  volume 
of  the  cylinder,  including  the  charging  space,  so  that  if  the  stroke  of 


40  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND   OIL-ENGINES 

the  piston  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  charging  or  combustion  space, 
the  expansion  will  be  twice  the  volume  of  the  charging  space  and 

vs_i  T,    /iy408  /iy408 

y  —  2«     inen  ^  =  I  -  1       and  T,  =  T  ( - 1      .     Using  the  same  value 

(]_  \.408  | 

9J        and  using  logarithms  for  -,  log.  2  = 

2520° 


IV  /  o     — o —  '      fyj 

.408 

0.30103  X        -  log.  0.12282  =  index  1.32,  and  y|^  =  1908°,  the 

absolute  temperature  T,  at  the  terminal  of  the  stroke.     Then  1908° 
-460°  =  1448°  F.,  temperature  at  end  of  stroke. 


iGo 


I  Vo\, 


FIG.  7.  —  The  four-cycle  compression  card.     Theoretical. 

For  obtaining  the  efficiency  from  the  volume  of  expansion  from 

V        2 

a  known  acquired  temperature  we  have  77  t  =  -  X520°  =  1040°  abso- 

*   0 

lute  =  t,.     Then 


Then  using  the  values  as  above, 

(1908-1040)  +  1.408  (1040-520) 


efficiency  =  1 .  — 


2520-520 


=  868  +  1.408X 


1600 


520  =  732  +  868  -  ^^  -  .80,  and  1  -  .80  =  .20  per  cent. 


For  a  four-cycle  compression-engine  with  compression  say  to 
45  Ibs.,  the  efficiency  is  dependent  upon  the  temperature  of  com- 
pression, the  relative  volume  of  combustion  chamber  and  piston 
stroke,  and  the  temperatures.  Fig.  7  is  a  type  card  of  reference 


HEAT  AND   ITS  EFFICIENCY    IN   EXPLOSIVE   MOTORS      41 

for  the  formulas  for  efficiencies  of  this  class  of  explosive  motors, 
in  which  : 

t  =  abs.  temp,  at  b  normal. 
tc  =  abs.  temp,  of  compression  /. 
T  =  abs.  acquired  temp.  e. 
Tl  =  abs.  temp,  at  c. 
P  =  abs.  pressure  at  b. 
Pc  =  abs.  pressure  at  /. 
P0  =  abs.  pressure  at  c. 
V0  =  volume  at  b. 
V  =  volume  at  c. 
Vc  =  volume  at/. 

vo  =  V  or  volume  at  compression  =  volume  at  exhaust. 
Kv  =  .1685  specific  heat  at  constant  volume. 
Let  T  =  abs.  acquired  temp.  =  2520°  F.  as  before. 

t  =  abs.  normal  temp.  =  520°  or  60°  F. 

y-i 

(P  \      y          1  408—1 
P/  1  408    =0-29. 

/QQX0.29 

Then  520°  (77)       =777°  absolute  temperature  of   compression. 

Tt      2520°  X  520 
T,  =  abs.  temp,  of  expansion  =  —  or  -  =  1686  . 

The  terms  being  assumed  and  known  from  assumed  data,  the 

Kv(T-tc)-Kv  (T,-t) 
efficiency  =  1-  Kv(T-tc)" 

T  —  t 

Reducing,  efficiency  =  1  ~^r~  T',  substituting  figures  as  above 

I  —  tc 

found,  1~9  2Q_7_  =.333  per  cent,;  also  1  -     =         =  .333  and 

1  -  —  =  ^  =  .333  approximately. 
t> 


For  obtaining  the  efficiency  from  the  relative  volumes  at  both 
ends  of  the  piston  stroke,  with  an  expansion  in  the  cylinder  equal  to 
twice  the  clearance  space,  by  which  the  total  volume  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke  will  be  three  times  the  volume  of  the  clearance  space,— 

/FA*—1 

efficiency  in  this  case  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula  1  -  (  ^7°  1 


42 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


/iy408 

substituting,  the  values  become  l-(o)  ;  using  logarithms  as 
before,  log.  3 =0.477121  X. 408  =  0.194665,  the  index  of  which  is 
1.565,  and  -  =  .639.  Then  1  -  .639  -  .36  per  cent. 


TEMPERATURE    AND    PRESSURES 

Owing  to  the  decrease  from  atmospheric  pressure  in  the  indraw- 
ing  charge  of  the  cylinder,  caused  by  valve  and  frictional  obstruc- 
tion, the  compression  seldom  starts  above  13  Ibs.  absolute,  es- 
pecially in  high-speed  engines.  Col.  3  in  the  following  table 
represents  the  approximate  absolute  compression  pressure  for  the 

TABLE  IV. — GAS-ENGINE  CLEARANCE  RATIOS,  APPROXIMATE  COMPRESSION, 
TEMPERATURES  OF  EXPLOSION  AND  EXPLOSIVE  PRESSURES  WITH  A  MIXTURE 
OF  GAS  OF  660  HEAT  UNITS  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  AND  MIXTURE  OF  GAS  1  TO  6 
OF  AIR. 


Learance  Per  Cent, 
of  Piston  Volume. 

Ratio 
V  P  +  C  Vol. 

I 

pproximate  Com- 
pression from  13 
Ibs.  Absolute. 

Approximate 
Gauge  Pressure. 

bsolute  Tempera- 
ture of  Compres- 
sion from  560°  F. 
in  Cylinder. 

bsolute  Tempera- 
ture of  Explosion. 
Gas,  1  part  ;  Air, 
6  parts. 

pnroximate  E  x  - 
plosion  Pressure 
Absolute. 

Approximate 
Gauge  Pressure. 

pproximate  Tem- 
perature of  Ex- 
plosion, Fahren- 
heit. 

O 

* 

* 

< 

* 

^ 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Lbs. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Deg. 

.50 

3. 

57. 

42. 

822. 

2488 

169 

144 

2027 

.444 

3.25 

65.  !  50. 

846. 

2568 

197 

182 

2107 

.40 

3.50 

70. 

55. 

868. 

2638 

212 

197 

2177 

.363 

3.75 

77. 

62. 

889. 

2701 

234 

219 

2240 

.333 

4. 

84. 

69. 

910. 

2751 

254 

239 

2290 

.285 

4.50 

102. 

8$. 

955  .    2842 

303 

288 

2381 

.25 

5. 

114. 

99. 

983.    2901- 

336 

321 

2440 

! 

clearance  percentage  and  ratio  in  Cols.  1  and  2,  while  Col.  4  indi- 
cates the  gauge  pressure  from  the  atmospheric  line. 

The  temperatures  in  Col.  5  are  due  to  the  compression  in  Col.  3 
from  an  assumed  temperature  of  560°  F.  in  the  mixture  of  the 
fresh  charge  of  6  air  to  1  gas  with  the  products  of  combustion  left 
in  the  clearance  chamber  from  the  exhaust  stroke  of  a  medium- 
speed  motor. 


HEAT  AND   ITS   EFFICIENCY  IN   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS      43 

This  temperature  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  from  the 
difference  in  the  heat-unit  power  of  the  gases  and  vapors  used  for 
explosive  power,  as  also  of  the  cylinder-cooling  effect. 

In  Col.  6  is  given  the  approximate  temperatures  of  explosion 
or  a  mixture  of  air  6  to  gas  1  of  660  heat  units  per  cubic  foot,  for 
the  relative  values  of  the  clearance  ratio  in  Col.  2  at  constant 
volume. 

The  formulas  for  the  above  approximate  table,  avoiding  decimal 
values,  are  as  follows: 


=  absolute  pressure  Col.  3. 
.35  log.  Ratio  =  log.  |  Col.  5. 


f-  =  P  absolute  pressure  Col.  7.  P-p  =  Col.8.  T-  461°= Col.  9. 

pc  =  absolute  pressure  of  compression. 

p  =  initial  absolute  pressure  in  cylinder  before  compression, 

13  Ibs. 

P  =  absolute  pressure  of  explosion. 
T  =  absolute  explosion  temperature. 
Z  =  initial  absolute  temperature  in  cylinder  after  charge  560° 

F. 
tc  =  absolute  temperature  of  compression. 

The  explosive  absolute  temperature  in  Col.  6  decreases  in  pro- 
portion to  the  dilution  of  the  gas  with  air,  until  with  the  propor- 
tion of  12  air  to  1  gas,  but  69  per  cent,  of  the  temperature  given 
in  Col.  6  is  available.  The  decrease  in  pressure  follows  in  a  like 
proportion. 

In  Col.  7  is  given  the  absolute  explosive  pressure  due  to  the 
conditions  in  the  preceding  columns  and  computed  from  the  formula 

p  T 

--—  =P,  in  which  pc  =  absolute  compression  pressure  Col.  3.     T  = 

absolute  explosive  temperature  Col.  6.     t  =  absolute  compression 
temperature  Col.  5,  for  each  ratio  in  Col.  2. 


44 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Col.  8  is  the  gauge  pressure  derived  from  the  absolute  pressures 
in  Col.  7. 

Col.  9  is  the  explosive  temperature  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale, 
T  -  461°,  or  Col.  6  -  461°. 

The  following  table  and  diagram  show  the  approximate  result- 
ing temperatures  usual  in  gas-engines,  in  consideration  of  the  heat 
values  of  each  element  in  the  gas  and  its  distribution  to  the  air 
and  heated  contents  of  the  clearance  space  from  a  previous  explo- 
sion, and  the  estimated  absorption  of  heat  by  the  walls  of  the 
clearance  space  at  the  moment  of  combustion,  for  gas  of  660 
thermal  units  per  cubic  foot : 

TABLE  V. 


Usual  rise  in  temperature  of  explosion  of  various  air  and  gas 

Clearance  Per 

Ratio 
P  +  C 

mixtures,  due  to  the  ratio  of  compression  in  column  2. 

Cent,  of  Piston 

Volume. 

n 

6  to  1 

7  to  1 

8  to  1 

9  to  1 

10  to  1 

lltol       12tol 

.50 

3. 

2,029 

1,922 

1,845 

1,739 

1,629 

1,524  i     ,398 

.444 

3.25 

2,111 

2,001 

1,918 

1,807 

1,693 

1,584        ,452 

.40 

3.50 

2,183 

2,069 

1,981 

1,866 

1,748 

1,635  j     ,500 

.363 

3.75 

2,245 

2,127 

2,036 

1,917 

1,795 

1,679        ,540 

.333 

4. 

2,300 

2,178 

2,084 

1,961 

1,837 

1,718  !     ,578 

.285 

4.5 

2,390 

2,269 

2,165 

2,036 

1,907 

1,783  !     ,636 

.25 

5. 

2,462 

2,343 

2,225 

2,098 

1,963 

1,836  !  1,683 

.222 

5.5 

2,522 

2,404 

2,282 

2,145 

2,008 

1,878  '   1,722 

.20 

6. 

2,572 

2,456 

2,326 

2,186 

2,046 

1,914      1,755 

Diagram  of  the  rise  in  temperature  of  various  mixtures  of  air 
and  gas  of  660  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot  at  ratios  of  compression 

of  ™ —  ' ,    and  of  piston-stroke  volume,  less  the  estimated 

Clearance  Vol. 

loss  of  temperature  due  to  the  clearance  volume  of  a  previous  com- 
bustion and  wall-cooling. 

The  ratio  of  compression  is  obtained  by  the  stroke  volume  of 
the  piston,  which  may  be  represented  by  1.  to  which  is  added  the 
percentage  of  the  volume  for  clearance,  and  the  sum  divided  by 
the  clearance  equals  the  ratio.  For  example : 


1  +  .50 
.50 


3.  and  — £,—  =  6.  the  ratios  as  in  the  diagram.     Then 


HEAT  AND  ITS  EFFICIENCY  IN  EXPLOSIVE   MOTORS      45 

o 

using  the  ratio  for  obtaining  both  stroke  and  clearance  ^r=l  and 
3  -1  =  2  the  stroke  and  2  —  1  =  1,  the  clearance.     At  the  other  end, 


Piston  Stroke  Volume 

.25  .285  .333     .363      .40     .444      .50 


FIG.  8. — Heat  diagram,  in  the  gas-engine  cylinder. 

/> 

for  example,  7  =  1.  and  6.  - 1  =  5.  the  stroke  and  6  —  5  =  1.  the  clear- 
ance in  parts  of  the  stroke. 


CHAPTER   IV 


RETARDED    COMBUSTION,    WALL-COOLING,    AND    COMPRESSION 
EFFICIENCIES 

SOME  of  the  serious  difficulties  in  practically  realizing  the  con- 
dition of  a  perfect  cycle  in  an  internal-combustion  engine  are  shown 
in  the  diagram  Fig.  9,  taken  from  an  Otto  gas-engine,  in  which 
the  cooling  effect  of  the  walls  is  shown  by  the  lagging  of  the  explo- 
sion curve,  by  the  miss- 
ing of  several  explo- 
sions when  the  cylinder 
walls  have  been  unduly 
cooled  by  the  water- 
jacket.  The  same  de- 
lay is  experienced  in 
starting  a  gas-engine. 
The  indicator  card  IAD 


representing  the  normal 


FIG.  9. — Variable  card  from  wall  cooling. 

condition  of  constant  work  in  the  cylinder;  the  curve  I  B  D  an 
interruption  of  explosions  for  several  revolutions;  and  I  C  D  a 
still  longer  interruption  in  the  explosions  with  the  engine  in 
continuous  motion. 

In  an  experimental  investigation  of  the  efficiency  of  a  gas- 
engine  under  variable  piston  speeds  made  in  France,  it  was  found 
that  the  useful  effect  increases  with  the  velocity  of  the  piston — that 
is,  with  the  rate  of  expansion  of  the  burning  gases  with  mixtures 
of  uniform  volumes;  so  that  with  the  variations  of  time  of  complete 
combustion  at  constant  pressure,  as  illustrated  on  pages  28-29,  and 
the  variations  due  to  speed,  in  a  way  compensate  in  their  efficiencies. 
The  dilute  mixture,  being  slow  burning,  will  have  its  time  and 
pressure  quickened  by  increasing  the  speed. 
46 


COMBUSTION,   WALL-COOLING,  AND   COMPRESSION          47 


TABLE  VI. — TRIAL  EFFICIENCIES  DUE  TO  INCREASED  PISTON  SPEED. 


Efficiency  = 


_work  of  indicator  diagram 


theoretical  work. 


. 

t-d 

. 

13       -S 

Mixtures. 

Ill 

»  08 

|1]| 

|l|| 

I 

H 

•S2      3s 

O     ^  o 

f—  1         o 

w 

P-t 

fe 

* 

1  volume  coal-gas  to  9.4  volumes  air  (.1093 
cubic  feet  mixture)              .            

.53 

1.181 

70.8 

4917 

1.44 

1  volume  coal-gas  to  9.  4  volumes  air  
1         "         "       "  "9.4          " 

.40 
.25 

1.64 
3.01 

85.3 
105.5 

4917 
4917 

1.70 
2.10 

1         "         "       "  "  9.4 

.16 

4.55 

125.8 

4917 

2.60 

1        "         "       "  '"  6.33        "        "    (.073 

cubic  feet  mixture) 

15 

5.57 

127.2 

4793 

2  60 

1  volume  coal-gas  to  6.33  volumes  air    .... 

.09 

9.51 

289.9 

4793 

6.00 

1             <  «              «          «    «    a   •>•»            .1             .  i 

.06 

14.1 

364.4 

4793 

7.50 

These  trials  give  unmistakable  evidence  that  the  useful  effect 
increases  with  the  velocity  of  the  piston — that  is,  with  the  rate  of 
expansion  of  the  burning  gases. 

The  time  necessary  for  the  explosion  to  become  complete  and 
to  attain  its  maximum  pressure  depends  not  only  on  the  composi- 
tion of  the  mixture,  but  also  upon  the  rate  of  expansion. 

This  has  been  verified  in  experiments  with  a  high-speed  motor, 
at  speeds  from  500  to  1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  or  piston  speeds 
of  from  16  to  32  feet  per  second. 

The  increased  speed  of  combustion  due  to  increased  piston  speed 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  builders  of  gas-engines,  as  well 
as  to  the  users,  as  indicating  the  mechanical  direction  of  improve- 
ments to  lessen  the  wearing  strain  due  to  high  speed  and  to  lighten 
the  vibrating  parts  with  increased  strength,  in  order  that  the 
balancing  of  high-speed  engines  may  be  accomplished  with  the 
least  weight. 

From  many  experiments  made  in  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States,  it  has  been  conclusively  proved  that  excessive  cylinder 
cooling  by  the  water-jacket  is  a  loss  of  efficiency. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  with  a  simplex  engine  in  France,  it 
was  found  that  a  saving  of  7  per  cent,  in  gas  consumption  per  brake 
horse-power  was  made  b}^  raising  the  temperature  of  the  jacket 


48 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


water  from  141°  to  165°  F.  A  still  greater  saving  was  made  in  a 
trial  with  an  Otto  engine  by  raising  the  temperature  of  the  jacket 
water  from  61°  to  140°  F. — it  being  9.5  per  cent,  less  gas  per  brake 
horse-power. 

In  view  of  the  experiments  in  this  direction,  it  clearly  shows 
that  in  practical  work,  to  obtain  the  greatest  economy  per  effective 
brake  horse-power,  it  is  necessary: 

1st.  To  transform  the  heat  into  work  with  the  greatest  rapidity 
mechanically  allowable.  This  means  high  piston  speed. 

2d.  To  have  high  initial  compression. 

3d.  To  reduce  the  duration  of  contact  between  the  hot  gases 
and  the  cylinder  walls  to  the  smallest  amount  possible;  which 
means  short  stroke  and  quick  speed,  with  a  spherical  cylinder-head. 


Actual  Indicaf  or 

Diagram  from 

Otto  Engtiie. 


<• TMs  length  is  proportional  to  the.  stroke  of  Engine. >j 

FIG.  10. — Otto  four-cycle  card. 

4th.  To  adjust  the  temperature  of  the  jacket  water  to  obtain 
the  most  economical  output  of  actual  power.  This  means  water- 
tanks  or  water-coils,  with  air-cooling  surfaces  suitable  and  adjust- 
able to  the  most  economical  requirement  of  the  engine,  which  by  late 
trials  requires  the  jacket  water  to  be  discharged  at  about  200°  F. 

5th.  To  reduce  the  wall  surface  of  the  clearance  space  or  com- 
bustion chamber  to  the  smallest  possible  area,  in  proportion  to  its 
required  volume.  This  lessens  the  loss  of  the  heat  of  combustion 
by  exposure  to  a  large  surface,  and  allows  of  a  higher  mean  wall 
temperature  to  facilitate  the  heat  of  compression. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  volumes  of  similar  cylinders  increase 
as  the  cube  of  their  diameters,  while  the  surface  of  their  cold  walls 


COMBUSTION,   WALL-COOLING,   AND  COMPRESSION         49 


varies  as  the  square  of  their  diameters;  so  that  for  large  cylinders 
the  ratio  of  surface  to  volume  is  less  than  for  small  ones.  This 
points  to  greater  economy  in  the  larger  engines. 

The  study  of  many  experiments  goes  to  prove  that  combustion 
takes  place  gradually  in  the  gas-engine  cylinder,  and  that  the  rate 
of  increase  of  pressure  or  rapidity  of  firing  is  controlled  by  dilution 
and  compression  of  the  mixture,  as  well  as  by  the  rate  of  expansion 
or  piston  speed. 

The  rate  of  combustion  also  depends  on  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  exploding  chamber,  and  is  increased  by  mechanical  agitation 
of  the  mixture  during  combustion,  and  still  more  by  the  mode  of 
firing.  A  small  intermittent  spark  gives  the  most  uncertain  igni- 
tion, whereas  a  continuous  electric  spark  passed  through  an  ex- 


8UCTION 

COMPRESSION     *j 

EXPANSION     (WORKING  STROKE) 
FULL  STROKE  ) 


EXHAUST 


FIG.  11. — Indicator  card,  Atkinson  type. 

plosive  mixture,  or  a  large  flame  as  the  shooting  of  a  mass  of 
lighted  gas  into  a  weak  mixture,  will  produce  rapid  ignition. 

The  shrinkage  of  the  charge  of  mixed  gas  and  air  by  the  union 
of  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen  constituents  by  the  production  of  the 
vapor  of  water  in  a  gas-engine  cylinder,  using  1  part  illuminating 
gas  to  6.05  parts  air,  is  a  notable  amount,  and  of  the  total  volume 
of  7.05  in  cubic  feet,  the  product  will  be: 

1 . 3714  cubic  feet  water  vapor. 
.5714     "        "     carbonic  acid. 
.0050     "        "    nitrogen  derived  from  the  gas. 
"          "  "          "       "     air. 


4.8000 
6.7428     " 


products  of  combustion. 


50 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Then  7.05  cubic  feet  of  the  mixture  charge  will  have  shrunk  by 
combustion  to  6.7428  cubic  feet  at  initial  temperature,  or  4.4  per 
cent. 

This  difference  in  the  computed  shrinkage  at  initial  temperature 


FIG.  12. — Indicator  card,  full  load.     Four  cycle. 

is  manifested  in  the  reduced  pressure  of  combustion  due  to  the 
computed  shrinkage,  and  amounts  to  about  2  per  cent,  in  the  mean 
pressure,  as  shown  on  an  indicator  card. 

With  the  less  rich  gas,  as  water,  producer,  and  Dowson  gas,  the 
shrinkage  by  conversion  into  water  vapor  is  equal  to  5.5  per  cent. 

In  Fig.  11  is  represented  a  card  from  the  Atkinson  gas-engine. 


FIG.  13. — Indicator  card,  half  load. 

The  peculiar  design  of  this  engine  enables  the  largest  degree  of 
expansion  known  in  gas-engine  practice. 

In  Fig.   12  is  shown  an  actual  indicator  diagram  from  an  Otto 
or  four-cycle  engine,  in  which  the  sequences  of  operation  are  deline- 


COMBUSTION,  WALL-COOLING,   AND  COMPRESSION         51 

ated  through  two  of  its  four  cycles.  The  curve  of  explosion  shows 
that  firing  commenced  slightly  before  the  end  of  the  compression 
stroke,  and  that  combustion  lagged  until  a  moment  after  reversal 
of  the  stroke.  The  expansion  line  is  somewhat  higher  than  the 


FIG.  14. — Typical  compression  card.     Mean  pressure,  76  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

adiabatic  curve,  indicating  a  partial  combustion  taking  place  dur- 
ing the  stroke  of  the  piston,  showing  an  irregularity  in  firing  the 
charge,  and  probably  an  irregular  progress  of  combustion  by  de- 
fective mixture.  This  card  was  made  when  running  at  full  load, 
and  computed  at  69  Ibs.  mean  pressure. 

Fig.  13  represents  a  card  from  the  same  engine  at  half  load  and 


FIG.  15. — Kerosene  motor  card.     Mietz  &  Weiss. 

lessened  combustion  charge.  It  shows  the  same  characteristics 
as  to  irregularity,  and  also  a  lag  in  firing  and  a  fitful  after-com- 
bustion ;  but  from  weak  mixture  and  interrupted  firing  the  cooling 


52 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


influence  of  the  cylinder  walls  has  prolonged  the  combustion  with 
ignition  pressure.  Mean  pressure,  about  68  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

Fig.  14  represents  a  typical  card  of  our  best  compression-engines, 
with  time  igniter,  at  full  load  and  uninterrupted  firing. 

The  kerosene-motor  card  of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engine  (Fig.  15) 
taken  from  a  20  horse-power  actual,  motor  with  cylinder  12  inches 
X  12  inches,  at  300  revolutions  per  minute,  shows  a  compresssion 
of  nearly  one-half  the  explosive  force.  Its  efficiency  is  very  high, 
and  by  test  gave  21  \  horse-power  from  16J  pints  of  oil  per  hour. 

A  most  unique  card  is  that  of  the  Diesel  motor  (Fig.  16),  which 
involves  a  distinct  principle  in  the  design  and  operation  of  inter- 
nal-combustion motors,  in  that  instead  of  taking  a  mixed  charge  for 
instantaneous  explosion,  its  charge  primarily  is  of  air  and  its  com- 
pression to  a  pressure  at  which  a  temperature  is  attained  above  the 
igniting  point  of  the  fuel,  then  injecting  the  fuel  under  a  still  higher 


Y. 


FIG.  16. — Diesel  motor  card. 


pressure  by  which  spontaneous  combustion  takes  place  gradually 
with  increasing  volume  over  the  compression  for  part  of  the  stroke 
or  until  the  fuel  charge  is  consumed.  The  motor  thus  operating 
between  the  pressures  of  500  and  35  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  with 
a  clearance  of  about  7  per  cent.,  has  given  an  efficiency  of  36  per 
cent,  of  the  total  heat  value  of  kerosene  oil. 


ADVANCED   IGNITION 


The  governing  of  an  explosive  motor,  by  changing  the  time  of 
ignition,  may  be  done  by  advancing  or  retarding  the  ignition  spark 
from  the  dead  centre  of  the  stroke. 


COMBUSTION,  WALL-COOLING,  AND  COMPRESSION        53 

In  Fig.  17  is  shown  the  effect  of  pre-ignition  for  regulating  speed. 
The  relative  areas  of  the  combined  card  show  the  change  in  mean 
pressure  and  also  the  increased  compression  before  the  crank  ar- 


16  H.  P.  Otto  Gas  Engine 
Full  Load 


151  revs,  per  minute 

Scale  of  spring,  56  Ib.  =  i  inch 


(Half  actual  size) 

FIG.  17. — Effect  of  advanced  ignition. 

rives  at  its  dead  centre.  This  may  be  carried  so  far  that  a  reversal 
of  the  motor  may  take  place.  In  some  automobile  practice  both 
the  advance  and  retardation  of  ignition  is  employed  in  Europe; 
but  is  not  recommended  in  lieu  of  variable-fuel  charge. 

The  value  of  an  indicator  card  for  ascertaining  the  true  condi- 
tion of  the  internal  activities  within  the  cylinder  of  an  explosive 
motor  is  most  apparent,  and  it  should  always  be  made  the  means 
for  finding  the  cause  of  trouble  that  cannot  be  traced  to  the  out- 
side mechanism. 

An  indicator  card,  or  a  series  of  them,  will  always  show  by  its 
lines  the  normal  or  defective  condition  of  the  inlet  valve  and  pas- 
sages; the  actual  line  of  compression;  the  firing  moment;  the  pres- 
sure of  explosion;  the  velocity  of  combustion;  the  normal  or  defec- 
tive line  of  expansion,  as  measured  by  the  adiabatic  curve,  and 
the  normal  or  defective  operation  of  the  exhaust  valve,  exhaust 
passages,  and  exhaust  pipe. 

In  fact,  all  the  cycles  of  an  explosive  motor  may  be  made  a 
practical  study  from  a  close  investigation  of  the  lines  of  an  indicator 
card. 


CHAPTER    V 

COMPRESSION  IN  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS,  AND  ITS  WORK 

THAT  the  compression  in  a  gas,  gasoline  or  oil-engine  has  a  direct 
relation  to  the  power  obtained,  has  been  long  known  to  experi- 
enced builders,  having  been  suggested  by  M.  Beau  de  Rocha,  in 
1862,  and  afterward  brought  into  practical  use  in  the  four-cycle 
or  Otto  type  about  1880.  The  degree  of  compression  has  had  a 
growth  from  zero,  in  the  early  engines,  to  the  highest  available 
due  to  the  varying  ignition  temperatures  of  the  different  gases  and 
vapors  used  for  explosive  fuel,  in  order  to  avoid  premature  explo- 
sion from  the  heat  of  compression.  Much  of  the  increased  power 
for  equal-cylinder  capacity  is  due  to  compression  of  the  charge 
from  the  fact  that  the  most  powerful  explosion  of  gases,  or  of  any 
form  of  explosive  material,  takes  place  when  the  particles  are  in  the 
closest  contact  or  cohesion  with  one  another,  less  energy  in  this 
form  being  consumed  by  the  ingredients  themselves  to  bring  about 
their  chemical  combination,  and  consequently  more  energy  is  given 
out  in  useful  or  available  work.  This  is  best  shown  by  the  ignition 
of  gunpowder,  which,  when  ignited  in  the  open  air,  burns  rapidly, 
but  without  explosion,  an  explosion  only  taking  place  if  the  powder 
be  confined  or  compressed  into  a  small  space. 

In  a  gas  or  gasoline-motor  with  a  small  clearance  or  compression 
space — with  high  compression — the  surface  with  which  the  burning 
gases  come  into  contact  is  much  smaller  in  comparison  with  the 
compression  space  in  a  low-compression  motor. 

Another  advantage  of  a  high-compression  motor  is  that  on 
account  of  the  smaller  clearance  of  combustion  space  less  cooling 
water  is  required  than  with  a  low-compression  motor,  as  the  tem- 
perature, and  consequently  the  pressure,  falls  more  rapidly.  The 
loss  of  heat  through  the  water-jacket  is  thus  less  in  the  case  of  a 
high-compression  than  in  that  of  a  low-compression  motor.  In 
the  non-compression  type  of  motor  the  best  results  were  obtained 
with  a  charge  of  16  to  18  parts  of  gas  and  100  parts  of  air,  while 
in  the  compression  type  the  best  results  are  obtained  with  an  ex- 
plosive mixture  of  7  to  10  parts  of  gas  and  100  parts  of  air,  thus 
54 


COMPRESSION  IN  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS  55 

showing  that  by  the  utilization  of  compression  a  weaker  charge 
with  a  greater  thermal  efficiency  is  permissible. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  explosive  pressure  resulting  from 
the  ignition  of  the  charge  of  gas  or  gasoline-vapor  and  air  in  the 
gas-engine  cylinder  is  about  4J  times  the  pressure  prior  to  ignition. 
The  difficulty  about  getting  high  compression  is  that  if  the  pressure 
is  too  high  the  charge  is  likely  to  ignite  prematurely,  as  compression 
always  results  in  increased  temperature.  The  cylinder  may  become 
too  hot,  a  deposit  of  carbon,  a  projecting  bolt,  nut,  or  fin  in  the 
cylinder  may  become  incandescent  and  ignite  the  charge  which 
has  been  excessively  heated  by  the  high  compression  and  mixture 
of  the  hot  gases  of  the  previous  explosion. 

With  gasoline-vapor  and  air  the  compression  cannot  be  raised 
above  about  85  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  many  manufacturers 
not  going  above  55  or  60  pounds.  For  natural  gas  the  compression 
pressure  may  easily  be  raised  to  from  85  to  100  pounds  per  square 
inch.  For  gases  of  low  calorific  value,  such  as  blast-furnace  or 
producer-gas,  the  compression  may  be  increased  to  from  140  to  190 
pounds.  In  fact  the  ability  to  raise  the  compression  to  a  high 
point  with  these  gases  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  their  suc- 
cessful adoption  for  gas-engine  use.  With  kerosene  the  compression 
of  250  pounds  per  square  inch  has  been  used  with  marked  economy. 
Many  troubles  in  regard  to  loss  of  power  and  increase  of  fuel 
have  occurred  and  will  no  doubt  continue,  owing  to  the  wear  of 
valves,  piston,  and  cylinder,  which  produces  a  loss  in  compression 
and  explosive  pressure  and  a  waste  of  fuel  by  leakage.  Faulty 
adjustment  of  valve  movement  is  also  a  cause  of  loss  of  power; 
which  may  be  from  tardy  closing  of  the  inlet-valve  or  a  too  early 
opening  of  the  exhaust-valve. 

The  explosive  pressure  varies  to  a  considerable  amount  in  pro- 
portion to  the  compression  pressure  by  the  difference  in  fuel  value 
and  the  proportions  of  air  mixtures,  so  that  for  good  illuminating 
gas  the  explosive  pressure  may  be  from  2.5  to  4  times  the  compres- 
sion pressure.  For  natural  gas  3  to  4.5,  for  gasoline  3  to  5,  for 
producer-gas  2  to  3,  and  for  kerosene  by  injection  3  to  6. 

For  obtaining  the  compression  clearance  we  have  the  equations : 

/v\i.35  /pV-35 

(p  v)1-35  =  (p,  vO1'35.     Then  p,  =  p  ( -  )       and  v,  =  v  K- 1       and 


56  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

substituting  values  for  p,  and  pb  we  have  values  for  the  volume  of 
the  clearance,  say  for  100  pounds  gauge  pressure  of  compression, 
in  which  v  and  p  represent  absolute  volumes  and  pressures. 

Then  using  the  expression  for  pressure,  say  for  100  pounds,  in 
which  p  =  normal  absolute  pressure  and  pl  =  absolute  compression 
pressure,  the  expression  becomes  for  clearance  plus  stroke,  1  — 

14.7  V-35 

wnicn  worked  out  by  logarithms  =  .1281  log.  1.  107549  X 


1.35  ==  .  145191  15  index  of  which  is  .1397,  the  adiabatic  ratio  of 
compression  for  the  stroke  +  clearance,  and  1—  .  1397  =  .8603  the 
ratio  for  obtaining  the  clearance.  Then  by  dividing  the  stroke 
in  inches  by  this  ratio  and  subtracting  from  the  quotient  the 
length  of  the  stroke  gives  the  clearance  length  also  in  inches. 

For   example,  for   10-inch  stroke,—     -=11.623-10  =  1.623 

.  oOUo 

inches  clearance  in  the  length  of  a  plain  cylindrical  space  for  100 
pounds  compression.  If  the  clearance  space  is  of  other  form  than 
the  plain  extension  of  the  cylinders  the  volumes  will  have  the  same 
relation. 

For  example,  for  100  pounds  compression,  a  motor  with  an 
8-inch  cylinder  and  10-inch  stroke,  the  stroke  volume  will  be  502.6 

502.6 
cubic  inches,  and    Q    '    -584.2  cubic  inches,  and  584.2  —  502.6  = 

.oOUo 

81.6  cubic  inches  clearance.  From  this  formula  the  following 
table  of  compression  pressures  and  their  clearance  ratio  in  parts  of 
the  stroke  has  been  computed  : 

TABLE    VII.  —  COMPRESSION   AND   CLEARANCE. 


Compression  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Ratio. 
Stroke     c      .         ni 

Ratio                                   ICC> 

100 

.8603 

90 

.8419 

80 

.8189 

70 

.7890 

60 

.7508 

50 

.6972 

40 

.6201 

30 

.5058 

The  compression  temperatures,  although  well  known  and  easily 
computed  from  a  known  normal  temperature  of  the  explosive 
mixture,  are  subject  to  the  effect  of  the  uncertain  temperature 


COMPRESSION  IN   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS 


57 


of  the  gases  of  the  previous  explosion  remaining  in  the  cylinder, 
the  temperature  of  its  walls,  and  the  relative  volume  of  the  charge, 
whether  full  or  scant;  which  are  terms  too  variable  to  make  any 
computations  reliable  or  available. 

For  the  theoretical  compression  temperatures  from  a  known 
normal  temperature,  we  append  a  table  of  the  rise  in  temperature 
for  the  compression  pressures  in  the  foregoing  Table  VII : 

TABLE  VIII. — COMPRESSION  TEMPERATURES  FROM  A  NORMAL  TEMPERATURE  OF 

60°  FAH. 


100  Ibs  ""aug^1 

484° 

60  Ibs.  gauge  

.  .373° 

90  "    " 

.  .  .  459 

50  "    "   

.339 

80  "    " 

433 

40  "    "   

301 

70  "    " 

404 

30  "    " 

258 

To  which  must  be  added  the  assumed  temperature  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  cylinder  above  60°  at  the  moment  that  compression 
begins.  For  example,  for  obtaining  the  assumed  temperature  at 
the  moment  that  compression  begins  for  100  pounds  compression 
and  for  an  observed  temperature  of  the  exhaust  of  750°  F.  we 
have  the  compression  clearance  of  .1397  X  750°  =  104.7°  and 
piston  volume  of  .8603  X  60°  =  51.6°,  making  the  charged  tem- 
perature 156.3°  to  which  may  be  added  10°  for  increase  from  the 
walls  of  the  cylinder  =  166°  +  484°  for  compression  rise  =  650° 
the  probable  compression  temperature  for  100  pounds  per  square 
inch  compression.  This  is,  no  doubt,  a  crude  method,  but  we  find 
nothing  better. 

The  effect  of  compression  on  fuel  economy  is  well  shown  in 
trials  of  a  four-cycle  gas-engine  and  given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  IX. — COMPARISON  OF  THE  THEORETICAL  AND  ACTUAL  EFFICIENCIES  OF  A 
FOUR-CYCLE  GAS-ENGINE  AND  FUEL  ECONOMY  WITH  VARYING  COMPRESSION. 


Compression 
pressure, 
pounds. 

Ratio  of 
compres- 
sion. 

Computed 
efficiency 
from  compres- 
sion volume. 

Actual  indi- 
cated efficien- 
cy by  card 
and  fuel. 

Gas  burned 
per  I.  H.  P. 

Ratio  of  actual  to 
computed  effi- 
ciency. 

38 

.6 

.33 

.17 

C.  ft. 
24. 

^1     =.51 

61 

.4 

.40 

.21 

20.5 

-^    =.53 

87 

.34 

.428 

.25 

14.8 

iSr^ 

58 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


From  considerations  shown  in  the  table  it  is  evident  that  there 
is  economy  in  compression  and  it  is  claimed  that  still  higher  com- 
pression may  be  used  to  advantage;  but  from  reasons  given  in  the 
foregoing  discussion  of  this  subject,  the  practical  limit  of  com- 
pression may  be  stated  to  be  at  100  pounds. 

The  diagram  (Fig.  18),  drawn  to  scale  from  trials  with  compres- 
sions at  38-61,  and  87  pounds,  gives  an  ideal  conception  of  the 


280 
240 
200 
160 
120 
80 
40 


g  c  b 

FIG.  18. — Compression  diagram. 

value  of  the  power  of  the  same  engine  under  various  compressions, 
in  which  a,  b,  represents  the  piston  and  clearance  space  and 
b,  c;  6,  g,  and  6, 1,  the  relative  piston  strokes  and  clearance  for  the 
compressions  of  38,  61,  and  87  pounds.  The  relative  areas  show 
at  a  glance  and  the  above  table  shows  the  relative  value  of  the  fuel 
consumed  per  indicated  horse-power. 


CHAPTER   VI 

CAUSES    OF    LOSS  AND    INEFFICIENCY    IN    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS 

THE  difference  realized  in  the  practical  operation  of  an  internal 
heat  engine  from  the  computed  effect  derived  from  the  values  of 
the  explosive  elements  is  probably  the  most  serious  difficulty  that 
engineers  have  encountered  in  their  endeavors  to  arrive  at  a  rational 
conclusion  as  to  where  the  losses  were  located  and  the  ways  and 
means  of  design  that  would  eliminate  the  causes  of  loss  and  raise 
the  efficiency  step  by  step  to  a  reasonable  percentage  of  the  total 
efficiency  of  a  perfect  cycle. 

An  authority  on  the  relative  condition  of  the  chemical  elements 
under  combustion  in  closed  cylinders,  attributes  the  variation  of 
temperature  shown  in  the  fall  of  the  expansion  curve,  and  the  sup- 
pression or  retarded  evolution  of  heat,  entirely  to  the  cooling  action 
of  the  cylinder  walls,  and  to  this  nearly  all  the  phenomena  hitherto 
obscure  in  the  cylinder  of  a  gas-engine. 

Others  attribute  the  great  difference  between  the  theoretical 
temperature  of  combustion  and  the  actual  temperature  realized 
in  the  practical  operation  of  the  gas-engine,  a  loss  of  more  than 
one-half  of  the  total  heat  energy  of  the  combustibles,  partly 
to  the  dissociation  of  the  elements  of  combustion  at  extremely 
high  temperatures  and  their  reassociation  by  expansion  in  the 
cylinder,  to  account  for  the  supposed  continued  combustion  and 
extra  adiabatic  curve  of  the  expansion  line  on  the  indicator 
card. 

The  loss  of  heat  to  the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  piston,  and  clear- 
ance space,  as  regards  the  proportion  of  wall  surface  to  the  volume, 
has  gradually  brought  this  point  to  its  smallest  ratio  in  the  con- 
cave piston-head  and  globular  cylinder-head,  with  the  smallest 
possible  space  in  the  inlet  and  exhaust  passage.  The  wall  surface 

59 


60 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND   OIL-ENGINES 


of  a  cylindrical  clearance  space  or  combustion  chamber  of  one-half 
its  unit  diameter  in  length  is  equal  to  3.1416  square  units,  its  volume 
but  0.3927  of  a  cubic  unit;  while  the  same  wall  surface  in  a  spherical 
form  has  a  volume  of  0.5236  of  a  cubic  unit.  It  will  be  readily 
seen  that  the  volume  is  increased  33J  per  cent,  in  a  spherical 
over  a  cylindrical  form  for  equal  wall  surfaces  at  the  moment 
of  explosion,  when  it  is  desirable  that  the  greatest  amount 
of  heat  is  generated,  and  carrying  with  it  the  greatest  possible 
pressure  from  which  the  expansion  takes  place  by  the  movement 
of  the  piston. 

The  spherical  form  cannot  continue  during  the  stroke  for  me- 
chanical reasons;  therefore  some  proportion  of  piston  stroke  or 
cylinder  volume  must  be  found  to  correspond  with  a  spherical 
form  of  the  combustion  chamber  to  produce  the  least  loss  of 


FIG.  19. — Spherical  combustion 
chamber. 


FIG.  20. — Enlarged  combustion 
chamber. 


heat  through  the  walls  during  the  combustion  and  expansion 
part  of  the  stroke. 

This  idea  we  illustrate  in  Figs.  19  and  20,  showing  how  the 
relative  volumes  of  cylinder  stroke  and  combustion  chamber  may 
be  varied  to  suit  the  requirements^  due  to  the  quality  of  the  elements 
of  combustion.  In  Fig.  18  the  ratio  may  also  be  decreased  by 
extending  the  stroke. 

Although  the  concave  piston-head  shows  economy  in  regard  to 
the  relation  of  the  clearance  volume  to  the  wall  area  at  the  moment 
of  explosive  combustion,  it  may  be  clearly  seen  that  its  concavity 
increases  its  surface  area  and  its  capacity  for  absorbing  heat,  for 
which  there  is  no  provision  for  cooling  the  piston,  save  its  contact 
with  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  and  the  slight  air  cooling  of  its  back 
by  its  reciprocal  motion.  For  this  reason  the  concave  piston-head 


LOSS  AND   INEFFICIENCY  IN   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS         61 

has  not  been  generally  adopted  and  the  concave  cylinder-head,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  19,  with  a  flat  piston-head  is  the  latest  and  best 
practice  in  explosive-engine  construction. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  wall  surface  of  the  combustion 
chamber  and  cylinder,  as  indicated  by  the  temperatures  of  the  cir- 
culating water,  has  been  found  to  be  an  important  item  in  the  econo- 
my of  the  gas-engine.  Dugald  Clerk,  in  England,  a  high  authority 
in  practical  work  with  the  gas-engine,  found  that  10  per  cent,  of 
the  gas  for  a  stated  amount  of  power  was  saved  by  using  water  at  a 
temperature  in  which  the  ejected  water  from  the  cylinder-jacket 
was  near  the  boiling-point,  and  ventures  the  opinion  that  a  still 
higher  temperature  for  the  circulating  water  may  be  used  as  a 
source  of  economy. 

This  could  be  made  practical  by  elevating  the  water-tank  and 
adjusting  the  air-cooling  surface  so  as  to  maintain  the  inlet  water 
at  just  below  the  boiling-point,  and  by  the  rapid  circulation  induced 
by  the  height  of  the  tank  above  the  engine  and  the  pressure,  to 
return  the  water  from  the  cylinder-jacket  a  few  degrees  above  the 
boiling-point. 

For  a  given  amount  of  heat  taken  from  the  cylinder  by  the 
largest  volume  of  circulating  water,  the  difference  in  temperature 
between  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  water-jacket  should  be  the  least 
possible,  and  this  condition  of  the  water  circulation  gives  a  more 
even  temperature  to  all  parts  of  the  cylinder;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
a  cold-water  supply,  say  at  60°  F.,  so  slow  as  to  allow  the  ejected 
water  to  flow  off  at  a  temperature  near  the  boiling-point,  must  make 
a  great  difference  in  temperature  between  the  bottom  and  top  of 
the  cylinder,  with  a  loss  in  economy  in  gas  arid  other  fuels,  as  well 
as  in  water,  if  it  is  obtained  by  measurement. 

In  regard  to  the  actual  consumption  of  water  per  horse-power, 
and  the  amount  of  heat  carried  off  by  it,  the  study  of  English  trials 
of  an  Atkinson,  Crossley,  and  Griffin  engine  showed  62  pounds  water 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  with  a  rise  in  temperature  of 
50°  F.,  or  3,100  heat  units  were  carried  off  in  the  water  out  of  12,027 
theoretical  heat  units  that  were  fed  to  the  motor  through  the  19 
cubic  feet  of  gas  at  633  heat  units  per  cubic  foot  per  hour. 

Theoretically,  2,564  heat  units  per  hour  are  equal  to  1  horse- 
power. Then  0.257  of  the  total  was  given  to  the  jacket  water,  0.213 


62  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

to  the  indicated  power,  and  the  balance,  53  per  cent.,  went  to  the 
exhaust,  radiation,  and  the  reheating  of  the  previous  charge  in  the 
clearance  and  in  expanding  the  nitrogen  of  the  air.  Other  and 
mysterious  losses,  due  to  the  unknown  condition  of  the  gases  enter- 
ing into  and  passing  through  the  heat  cycle,  which  have  been 
claimed  and  mathematically  discussed  by  authors,  have  failed  to 
satisfy  the  practical  side  of  the  question,  which  is  the  main  object 
of  this  work. 

From  the  foregoing  considerations  of  losses  and  inefficiencies,  we 
find  that  the  practice  in  motor  design  and  construction  has  not 
yet  reached  the  desired  perfection  in  its  cycular  operation.  Step 
by  step  improvements  have  been  made  with  many  changes  in 
design  that  may  have  been  without  merit  as  an  improvement, 
further  than  to  gratify  the  longings  of  designers  for  something 
different  from  the  other  thing,  and  to  establish  a  special  construc- 
tion of  their  own. 

These  efforts  may  in  time  produce  a  motor  of  normal  design  for 
each  kind  of  fuel  that  will  give  the  highest  possible  efficiency  for 
all  conditions  of  service. 

The  advent  of  the  speed  craze  in  automobile  and  marine  service 
has  given  a  great  incentive  to  activity  in  inventive  design  in  the 
lines  of  economy  of  fuel,  stability  of  action,  and  lightness  of  parts 
so  essential  to  locomotive  speed.  The  progress  is  apparently  slow, 
yet  when  compared  with  the  progress  of  the  steam-engine  it  is  a 
wonder  of  the  past  decade. 


CHAPTER    VII 

ECONOMY  OF  THE  GAS-ENGINE  FOR  ELECTRIC-LIGHTING  AND  MERITS 
OF    THE    TWO    TYPES 

IN  the  lighting  of  large  dwellings  or  other  buildings,  where  there 
is  no  power  used  for  other  purposes,  the  use  of  gas,  gasoline,  or  oil- 
engines for  operating  an  electric  generator  is  not  only  cheaper  in 
running  expenses  than  the  steam-engine,  but  the  comparison  holds 
good  for  the  lighting  of  towns  and  villages  at  the  usual  cost  of  gas 
to  consumers ;  but  when  the  generation  of  producer-gas  can  be  made 
for  such  use  on  the  premises  of  the  electric  plant  and  by  the 
same  persons  that  operate  the  electric  plant,  the  saving  in  cost  of 
electric-lighting  is  several-fold  less  than  by  direct  gas-burning. 

In  many  towns  where  oil  producer-gas  is  used,  the  cost  of  ma- 
terial used  in  making  the  gas  is  less  than  thirty-five  cents  per  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  gas  produced.  In  such  places  the  labor  of 
producing  the  gas  for  a  town  of  say  fifteen  hundred  inhabitants  is 
from  two  to  three  hours  per  day,  and  in  some  towns,  as  observed 
by  the  author,  three  hours  every  other  day — giving  ample  time 
for  the  same  operator  to  run  the  electric  plant  in  the  evening,  or 
both  may  be  run  simultaneously. 

When  the  mere  fact  of  the  cost  of  gas  for  direct  lighting  and 
its  cost  for  producing  the  same  light  by  its  use  in  a  gas-engine  to 
run  an  electric  generator  is  considered,  the  difference  in  favor  of 
electric-lighting  in  preference  to  direct  gas-lighting  is  most  apparent. 

It  has  been  known  for  some  years  that  for  equal  light  power 
but  about  one-half  the  volume  of  gas  consumed  in  direct  lighting 
will  produce  the  same  amount  of  candle-power  when  used  in  a  gas- 
engine  for  generating  electricity  for  lighting. 

Again,  when  we  leave  the  realm  of  a  fixed  gas  and  the  cost  of 
its  producing-plant,  the  gasoline  and  oil-engine  again  come  to  the 
rescue  of  the  fuel  element  for  lighting,  from  an  average  cost  of 
7J  cents  per  hour  for  192  candle-power  in  lights  by  direct  illumina- 

63 


64  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

tion,  and  2 J  cents  for  the  same  amount  of  light  by  the  use  of  illumi- 
nating gas  consumed  in  a  gas-engine  with  electric  generator,  to 
one  cent  or  less  by  the  gasoline  and  oil-engine  for  equal  light. 

In  English  trials  with  a  Crossley  engine  of  54  indicated  horse- 
power running  a  25}-kilowatt  generator  (34  electrical  horse-power), 
lighting  400  incandescent  lamps  (16  candle-power),  consumed  1,130 
cubic  feet  illuminating  gas  per  hour,  or  2.82  cubic  feet  of  gas  per 
lamp  per  hour. 

The  gas  used  for  direct  lighting  was  16  candle-power  at  5  cubic 
feet  per  hour.  Then,  if  it  had  been  used  for  direct  lighting,  it 
would  have  produced  — ^-  =  226  —  16-candle-power  gas-lights,  a 
little  over  one-half  the  amount  of  the  electric  light — or  the  efficiency 
of  the  direct  light  would  have  been  but  56.5  per  cent. 

To  show  the  difference  between  running  a  gas-engine  at  full 
or  less  than  full  power,  the  same  engine  and  generator  when  run- 
ning with  300  incandescent  lamps  (16  candle-power)  used  840 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  and  ^1^  =  168  —  16-candle-power  gas- 
lights, or  56  per  cent,  efficiency  for  direct  lighting. 

When  the  lamps  were  cut  out  to  one-half  or  200,  the  consumption 
of  gas  was  740  cubic  feet  per  hour,  equal  to  -Z-|-Q-  =  148  gas-lights, 
with  a  direct  gas-light  efficiency  of  74  per  cent. — the  difference  in 
efficiency  being  chiefly  due  to  the  constant  value  of  the  engine  and 
generator  friction  in  its  relation  to  the  variable  power. 

Another  trial  with  a  Tangye  engine  of  a  maximum  39  indi- 
cated horse-power  running  an  18.36-kilowatt  generator  (24.61  elec- 
trical horse-power),  lighting  300  16-candle-power  incandescent 
lamps,  consumed  770  cubic  feet  illuminating  gas  per  hour.  With 
direct  lighting,  ^P-  =  154  gas-lights  (16  candle-power),  or  an  effi- 
ciency of  51  per  cent,  for  direct  lighting.  With  220  incandescent 
lamps  in,  640  cubic  feet  of  gas  were  consumed  per  hour,  equal  to 
£f°-  =  128  gas-lights  and  a  direct  gas-light  efficiency  of  iff  =  58  per 
cent.  Again  reducing  to  100  lamps,  320  cubic  feet  of  gas  were 
used,  equal  to  64  gas-lights  with  an  efficiency  of  64  per  cent,  for 
direct  gas-lighting. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  by  inspection  of  these  figures  that  the 
greatest  economy  in  gas-engine  power  will  be  found  in  gauging  the 
size  of  a  gas-engine  by  the  work  it  is  to  do  when  the  work  is  a 
constant  quantity. 


THE  GAS-ENGINE  FOR  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  65 

In  a  trial  by  the  writer  of  a  Nash  gas-engine  of  5  brake  horse- 
power, driving  by  belt  a  Riker  3-kilowatt  bipolar  generator  of  120 
volts,  25-ampere  capacity,  the  engine  speed  was  300  revolutions  and 
the  generator  1,400  revolutions  per  minute;  consumption  of  New 
York  gas,  105  cubic  feet  per  hour.  With  50  120-volt  A.B.C.  lamps 
in  circuit  giving  a  brilliant  white  light  of  fully  16  candle-power,  the 
actual  voltage  by  meter  was  120,  amperage  by  meter  24,  voltage  and 
amperage  perfectly  steady  with  continuous  running.  By  turning 
in  resistance  and  reducing  the  voltage  to  110  and  the  amperage  to 
21,  the  lights  were  still  brilliant  in  the  50  lamps.  With  the  lamps 
cut  out  to  40,  the  voltmeter  vibrated  2  volts  and  immediately  came 
back  to  110  volts,  with  the  amperemeter  at  17.  With  a  further 
and  sudden  cutting  out  the  light  to  20  lamps,  the  voltage  fell  to 
105  with  but  slight  vibration;  amperage,  11.  With  15  lamps  on, 
the  voltage  crept  up  to  110,  amperage  6J;  and  with  10  lamps  only 
the  voltage  vibrated  for  a  few  seconds  and  rested  at  110,  amperage 
4J.  The  engine  seemed  to  answer  the  change  of  load  remarkably 
quick,  so  that  there  was  no  perceptible  change  in  speed. 

The  investment  of  local  lighting-plants  by  the  use  of  gas,  gaso- 
line, and  oil-engines  in  factories  and  large  buildings  has  been  found 
a  great  source  of  economy  as  against  the  direct  use  of  municipal 
electric  current  or  the  direct  use  of  gas. 

The  gasoline  or  oil-engine  makes  a  most  favorable  return  in 
economy  when  used  for  local  lighting  as  against  the  prevailing 
price  charged  by  the  operators  of  large  steam-power  installations 
for  town  and  city  lighting. 

In  a  trial  of  eleven  days  by  a  10-horse-power  four-cycle  gas- 
engine  of  the  Raymond  vertical  pattern,  belted  direct  to  a  150-light 
direct-current  generator  making  1,600  revolutions  per  minute,  with 
the  current  measured  by  a  recording  wattmeter,  giving  a  steady 
current  to  90  16-candle-power  lamps  on  a  factory  circuit,  the  total 
cost  of  gas  at  $1.50  per  1,000  cubic  feet  with  lubricating  oils  was 
$20.16.  The  kilowatts  produced  by  measure  were  239.1  at  a  cost 
of  .0844  cents  per  kilowatt.  The  price  of  the  current  by  the  same 
measure  from  the  electric  company  was  20  cents  per  kilowatt — a 
saving  of  57  per  cent.  In  places  where  gas  is  $1  per  1,000  feet,  the 
cost  would  have  been  only  5|  cents  per  kilowatt. 

In  the  lighting  of  churches  the  gas  or  gasoline-engine  has  been 


66  GAS,   GASOLINE  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

found  to  be  not  only  economical,  but  has  largely  contributed  to  the 
cheerful  surroundings  of  a  lighted  church  at  less  than  one-half  the 
cost  of  gas  for  direct  lighting,  and  with  no  more  attention  in  start- 
ing the  engine,  cleaning,  etc.,  than  required  for  lighting  and  regu- 
lating the  ordinary  gas-lights. 

The  last  few  years  have  ushered  in  a  most  extended  use  of 
explosive  engines  as  prime  movers  for  generating  the  electric  cur- 
rent for  lighting  and  the  transmission  of  power.  For  this  purpose 
the  duplex  vertical  engine  and  direct-connected  multipolar  gen- 
erators are  used,  from  which  very  favorable  results  have  been  ob- 
tained. Trials  with  a  22-brake  horse-power  two-cylinder  vertical 
engine  of  the  National  Meter  Co.,  direct  coupled  with  a  15-kilowatt 
6-pole,  compound-wound  Hiker  generator,  using  illuminating  gas  of 
701  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot,  with  engine  and  generator  run- 
ning at  300  revolutions  per  minute,  are  quoted.  "  The  output 
was  1,312  watts,  or  equal  to  345  lamps  of  3.8  watts  each — say 
16  candle-power,  with  a  total  brake  horse-power  =  22.71.  Total 
consumption  of  gas  per  brake  horse-power  =17.62  cubic  feet.  Re- 
lative illuminating  power  of  electric  light  2.21  as  compared  with 
equal  consumption  by  direct  gas  lighting.  Efficiency  of  engine 
20.6  per  cent.;  efficiency  of  generator  83.1  per  cent." 

Statements  of  still  greater  economy  for  lighting  by  gas  and 
gasoline-engines,  in  which  claims  for  from  14  to  16  cubic  feet  of 
gas  and  J  gallon  of  gasoline  per  brake  horse-power  are  made  for 
large-sized  electric  plants,  and  but  a  trifle  more  for  smaller  sizes. 
Electric-lighting  by  the  power  of  the  explosive  engine  is  conceded 
to  be  economical  at  all  ranges  of  its  power,  but  with  gasoline  and 
oil-vapor  the  cost  of  fuel  for  light  drops  to  less  than  -fa  of  a  cent 
per  16-candle-power  light  per  hour. 

Electric-lighting  plants  operated  by  gas,- gasoline,  and  oil-motors 
are  making  rapid  advances  in  the  number  of  units  of  power,  and  the 
small  powers  of  the  date  of  the  early  edition  of  this  work,  have 
gradually  advanced  to  unit  instalments  of  100,  500,  and  750  horse- 
power in  double  and  triple-cylinder  motors,  and  by  duplicating 
the  motor-units,  almost  any  desired  installation  can  be  made  on 
the  most  economical  running  basis. 

The  American  practice  of  construction  seems  to  favor  the  smaller 
cylinder  volume  and  their  duplication  for  the  higher  powers.  In 


THE   GAS-ENGINE  FOR  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  67 

this  manner  power  installations  for  from  1,000  to  10,000  incandes- 
cent lights  may  be  made  a  most  economical  plant  with  illuminating 
gas,  gasoline,  producer-gas  or  petroleum  oil. 

The  extension  of  electric  power  for  all  work  by  the  use  of  the 
cheap  producer-gas  fuel  in  the  explosive  motor  for  generating  and 
transmitting  electric  current,  has  taken  an  advanced  position  in 
the  manufacturing  industry  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  by 
developing  a  system  of  driving  machines  and  tools  of  all  kinds  by 
individual  and  local  motors;  thus  doing  away  with  a  vast  amount 
of  running  shaft  lines  and  belting  with  their  loss  of  power. 

Marking  the  rapid  progress  of  events  in  adapting  the  explosive 
motor  to  the  work  of  high-speed  road  locomotion  and  to  the  pro- 
pulsion of  marine  craft  and  its  culmination  in  racing  vehicles  and 
boats  that  have  exceeded  in  speed,  the  ardent  expectations  of  the 
inventors  and  constructors  of  the  past  century,  and  which  has  be 
come  a  marvel  of  progress  in  the  first  years  of  the  new  century. 

THE    TWO-CYCLE    AND    FOUR-CYCLE    TYPES 

In  the  earlier  years  of  explosive-motor  progress,  was  evolved 
the  two  types  of  motors  in  regard  to  the  cycles  of  their  operation. 
The  early  attempts  to  perfect  the  two-cycle  principle  were  for  many 
years  held  in  abeyance  from  the  pressure  of  interests  in  the  four- 
cycle type,  until  its  simplicity  and  power  possibilities  were  demon- 
strated by  Mr.  Dugald  Clerk  in  England,  who  gave  the  principles 
of  the  two-cycle  motor  a  broad  bearing  leading  to  immediate  im- 
provements in  design,  which  has  made  further  progress  in  the 
United  States,  until  at  the  present  time  it  has  an  equal  standard 
value  as  a  motor-power  as  its  ancient  rival  the  four-cycle  or  Otto 
type,  as  demonstrated  by  Beau  de  Rocha  in  1862. 

Thermodynamically,  the  methods  of  the  two  types  are  equal  as 
far  as  combustion  is  concerned,  and  compression  may  favor  in  a 
small  degree  the  four-cycle  type  as  well  as  the  purity  of  the  charge. 

The  cylinder  volume  of  the  two-cycle  motor  is  much  smaller 
per  unit  of  power,  and  the  enveloping  cylinder  surface  is  therefore 
greater  per  unit  of  volume.  Hence  more  heat  is  carried  off  by  the 
jacket  water  during  compression,  and  the  higher  compression  avail- 
able from  this  tends  to  increase  the  economy  during  compression 
which  is  lost  during  expansion. 


68 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


In  the  two-cycle  motor  a  scavenging  may  be  obtained  to  a  small 
extent  under  the  conditions  of  a  crank-chamber  pressure  charge, 
while  in  a  four-cycle  motor  the  charge  is  made  by  the  suction  stroke 
of  the  main  piston  and  at  less  than  atmospheric  pressure,  and  no 
scavenging  can  be  made  possible  except  by  the  momentum  of  the 
exhaust  in  a  long  exhaust-pipe,  which  is  not  always  available. 

The  result  of  these  conditions  is  that  the  two-cycle  type  has  a 
denser  charge  and  a  gain  in  power  per  unit  of  volume. 

From  the  above  considerations  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  a 
lower  temperature  and  higher  pressure  of  charge  at  the  beginning 
of  compression  is  obtained  in  the  two-cycle  motor,  greater  weight 


— H 


FIG.  21. — Theoretical  condition. 


FIG.  22. — Practical  condition. 


of  charge  and  greater  specific  power  of  higher  compression  resulting 
in  higher  thermal  efficiency. 

The  smaller  cylinder  for  the  same  power  of  the  two-cycle  motor 
gives  less  friction  surface  per  impulse  than  of  the  other  type;  al- 
though the  crank-chamber  pressure  may,  in  a  measure,  balance 
excessive  friction  of  the  four-cycle  type.  Probably  the  strongest 
points  in  favor  of  the  two-cycle  type  are  the  lighter  fly-wheel  and  the 
absence  of  valves  and  valve  gear,  making  this  type  the  most  simple 
in  construction  and  the  lightest  in  weight  for  its  developed  power. 


TYPES  OF  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS 


Yet,  for  the  larger  power  units,  the  four-cycle  type  will  no  doubt 
always  maintain  the  standard  for  efficiency  and  durability  of  action. 

The  distribution  of  the  charge  and  its  degree  of  mixture  with 
the  remains  of  the  previous  explosion  in  the  clearance  space,  has  been 
a  matter  of  discussion  for  both  types  of  explosive  motors,  with 
doubtful  results.  In  Fig.  21  we  illustrate  what  theory  suggests 


\  \ 

H 

1 

1 

1 

| 

// 

\r 

FIG.  23. — Exhaust. 


Fig.  24. — New  charge. 


as  to  the  distribution  of  the  fresh  charge  in  a  two-cycle  motor,  and 
in  Fig.  22  what  is  the  probable  distribution  of  the  mixture  when 
the  piston  starts  on  its  compressive  stroke. 

The  arrows  show  the  probable  direction  of  flow  of  the  fresh 
charge  and  burnt  gases  at  the  crucial  moment. 

In  Fig.  23  is  shown  the  complete  out-sweep  of  the  products  of 
combustion  for  the  full  extent  of  the  piston  stroke  of  a  four-cycle 
motor,  leaving  only  the  volume  of  the  clearance  to  mix  with  the  new 
charge  and  Fig.  24  the  manner  by  which  the  new  charge  sweeps  by 
the  ignition  device,  keeping  it  cool  and  avoiding  possibilities  of  pre- 
ignition  by  undue  heating  of  the  terminals  of  the  sparking  device. 

Thus,  by  enveloping  the  sparking  device  with  the  pure  mixture, 
ignition  spreads  through  the  charge  with  its  greatest  possible 
velocity,  a  most  desirable  condition  in  high-speed  motors  with 
side-valve  chambers  and  igniters  within  the  valve  chamber.  An 
igniter  in  the  cylinder-head  in  this  design  would  be  one  of  the 
sources  of  unseen  trouble  from  uncertain  ignition. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE    MATERIAL    OF    POWER    IN    EXPLOSIVE    ENGINES 

THE  composition  of  illuminating  and  producer-gases,  alcohol, 
acetylene,  gasoline,  kerosene  and  crude-petroleum  oil,  and  air,  as 
elements  of  combustion  and  force  in  explosive  engines,  is  of  great 
importance  in  comparison,  of  heat  and  motor  efficiencies.  By  re 
ported  experiments  with  20-candle  coal-gas  in  the  United  States,  by 
the  evaporation  of  water  at  212°  F.,  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  was  credited 
with  1,236  heat  units;  while  reliable  authorities  range  the  value  of 
our  best  illuminating  gases  at  from  675  to  810  heat  units  per  cubic 
foot.  The  specific  heat  of  illuminating  gas  is  much  higher  than  for 
air,  being  for  coal-gas  at  constant  pressure  0.6844,  and  at  constant 
volume  0.5196,  with  a  ratio  of  1.315;  while  the  specific  heat  for 
air  at  constant  pressure  is  0.2377,  and  at  constant  volume  is  0.1688, 
and  their  ratio  1.408. 

The  mixtures  of  gas  and  air  accordingly  vary  in  their  specific 
heat  with  ratios  relative  to  the  volumes  in  the  mixture.  The  prod- 
ucts of  combustion  also  have  a  higher  specific  heat  than  air,  rang- 
ing from  0.250  at  constant  pressure  and  0.182  at  constant  volume, 
to  0.260  and  0.190  with  ratios  of  1.37  and  1.36. 

A  cubic  foot  of  ordinary  coal-gas  burned  in  air  produces  about 
one  ounce  of  water-vapor  and  0.57  of  a  cubic  foot  of  carbonic-acid 
gas  (C02).  Its  calorific  value  will  average  about  675  heat  units 
per  cubic  foot. 

A  cubic  foot  of  ordinary  coal-gas  requires  1.21  cubic  feet  of 
oxygen,  more  or  less,  due  to  variation  in  the  constituents  of  dif- 
ferent grades  of  illuminating  gases  in  various  localities,  for  com- 
plete combustion. 

Allowing  for  an  available  supply  of  20  per  cent,  of  oxygen  in 
air  for  complete  combustion,  then  1.21  X  5  =  6.05  cubic  feet  of  air 
which  is  required  per  cubic  foot  of  gas  in  a  gas-engine  for  its  best 
work;  but  in  actual  practice  the  presence  in  the  engine  cylinder  of 
the  products  of  a  previous  combustion,  and  the  fact  that  a  sudden 
70 


THE   MATERIAL  OF   POWER  IN  EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES       71 


mixture  of  gas  and  air  may  not  make  a  homogeneous  combination 
for  perfect  combustion,  require  a  larger  proportion  of  air  to  com- 
pletely oxidize  the  gas  charge. 

It  will  be  seen  by  inspection  of  Table  II  that  the  above  pro- 
portion, without  the  presence  of  contaminating  elements,  produces 
the  quickest  firing  and  approximately  the  highest  pressure  at  con- 
stant volume,  and  that  any  greater  or  less  proportion  of  air  will 
reduce  the  pressure  and  the  apparent  efficiency  of  an  explosive 
motor.  There  are  other  considerations  affecting  the  governing 
of  explosive  engines,  in  which  the  gas  element  only  is  controlled 
by  the  governor,  requiring  an  excess  of  air  at  the  normal  speed, 
so  that  an  economical  adjustment  of  gas  consumption  may  be  ob- 
tained at  both  above  and  below  the  normal  speed. 

In  Table  X  the  materials  of  power  in  use  in  explosive  motors 
are  given  with  their  heat-unit  and  foot-pound  values. 

TABLE  X. — MATERIAL  OF  POWER  IN  EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES. 


Gases,  Vapors,  and  Other  Combustibles. 

Heat  Units 
per 
Pound. 

Heat  Units 
per 
Cubic  Foot. 

Foot-Pounds 
per 
Cubic  Foot. 

Hydrogen  H 

61,560 

293.5 

228,343 

Carbon  C 

14,540 

Crude  Petroleum,  sp.  gr.  0.873  
Crude  Petroleum,  Perm.,  sp.  gr.  0.841  
Kerosene   CioHa2                   

18,324 
18,401 
22,000 

Benzine  CeHe               .  .  .  

18,448 

Gasoline  CeHi  4               

18,000 

Alcohol  Methyl  C2H4O2 

20000 

Denatured  Methvl  Alcohol 

13,000 

Acetylene  CsHs                                                .  . 

21,492 

868 

675,304 

19-can.-power  Illuminating  Gas  
16-    " 
15-    " 
Gasoline  Vapor  CaHi4  

18,000 

800 
665 
620 
692 

622,400 
517,370 
482,360 
538.376 

Natural  Gas  Leechbur0"  Pa 

1051 

817,678 

"        "     Pittsburg  Pa 

892 

693,976 

\Vater-Gas  average 

290 

225,620 

Producer-Gas   100  to                                      .    . 

150 

116,700 

Suction-Gas,  average  
Marsh-Gas,  Methane,  C.H  
Olefiant  Gas  Ethylene  C2BU 

23,594 
21  430 

135 
1051 
1677 

105,030 
817,678 
1,304,716 

The  various  other  gases  than  coal-gas  used  in  explosive  engines 
are  NATURAL  GAS,  ACETYLENE,  liberated  by  the  action  of  water  on 
calcium  carbide;  PRODUCER-GAS,  made  by  the  limited  action  of  air 


72 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


alone  upon  incandescent  fuel;  WATER-GAS,  made  by  the  action  of 
steam  alone  upon  incandescent  fuel;  SEMI-WATER  GAS,  made  by 
the  action  of  both  air  and  steam  upon  incandescent  fuel— also 
named  DOWSON  GAS  in  England — and  SUCTION-GAS.  Alcohol  is 
also  coming  into  use  in  Europe. 

NATURAL     GAS 

The  constituents  of  natural  gas  vary  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  different  localities.  The  following  is  the  analysis  of  some  of  the 
Pennsylvania  wells: 

TABLE  XI. — NATURAL  GAS  CONSTITUENTS,  BY  VOLUME. 


Constituents. 

Olean, 

N.  Y. 

Pitts- 
burg, 
Pa. 

Leech- 
burg, 
Pa. 

Harvey 

Well, 
Butler 
County. 

Burns 

Well, 
Butler 
County. 

Hydrogen,  H  

22.00 

4.79 

13.50 

6    10 

Marsh-gas,  CH4  

96.50 

67.00 

89.65 

80.11 

75  44 

Ethane,  C2H4  
Heavy  hydrocarbons  

i.oo 

5.00 
1.00 

4.39 
.56 

5.72 

18.12 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO  

.50 

.60 

.26 

trace 

trace 

Carbonic  acid,  CO.  

60 

.35 

.66 

34 

Nitrogen,  N  

3  00 

Oxygen,  O  

2.00 

.80 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Heat  units,  cubic  foot  

1200 

892 

1051 

959 

1151 

Density,  0.5  to  0.55  (air  1). 

The  calorific  value  of  natural  gas  in  much  of  the  Western  gas 
fields  is  below  these  figures. 

In  experiments  recorded  by  Brannt,  "  Petroleum  and  Its  Prod- 
ucts," with  the  oil-gas  as  made  for  town  lighting  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States,  of  specific  gravity  about  0.68  (air  1),  mixt- 
ures of  oil-gas  with  air  had  the  following  explosive  properties : 


Oil-gas,  volumes.  Air,  volumes. 

1 4.9 

1 5.6to5.8 

1 6  to    6.5 

1 7  to    9 

1 10  to  13 

1 14  to  16 

1 17  to  17. 7 

,  1 . .  .  18  to  22 


Explosive  effect. 
None. 
Slight. 
Heavy. 
Very  heavy. 
Heavy. 
Slight. 
Very  slight. 
None. 


THE  MATERIAL  OF   POWER  IN  EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES    73 

It  will  be  seen  that  mixtures  varying  from  1  of  gas  to  6  of  air, 
and  all  the  way  to  1  of  gas  to  13  of  air,  are  available  for  use  in  gas- 
engines  for  the  varying  conditions  of  speed  and  power  regulation; 
and  that  1  of  gas  to  from  7  to  9  of  air  produces  the  best  working 
effect.  Its  calorific  value  varies  in  different  localities  from  600  to 
700  heat  units  per  cubic  foot.  Ordinary  oil  illuminating  gas  varies 
somewhat  in  its  constituents,  and  may  average:  Hydrogen,  39.5; 
marsh-gas,  37.3;  nitrogen,  8.2;  heavy  hydrocarbons,  6.6;  carbonic 
oxide,  4.3;  oxygen  (free),  1.4;  water-vapor  and  impurities/  2.7; 
total,  100;  and  is  equal  to  617  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

PRODUCER-GAS 

The  constituents  of  producer-gas  vary  largely  in  the  different 
methods  by  which  it  is  made;  in  fact,  all  of  the  following  described 
gases  are  made  in  producers,  so-called.  The  constituents  of  the 
low  grade  of  this  name  are 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO 22 .8  per  cent. 

Nitrogen,  N 63.5 

Carbonic  acid,  CO. 3.6 

Hydrogen,  H 2.2 

Marsh-gas  (methane),  CH4 7.4 

Free  oxygen,  O .5 

100.0       " 

The  average  heating  power  of  this  variety  of  producer-gas  is  about 
111  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

Another  producer-gas  called 

WATER-GAS 

has  an  average  composition  of 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO 41  per  cent. 

Hydrogen,  H 48       " 

Carbonic  acid,  CO* 6       " 

Nitrogen,  N 5       " 

100       " 

and  has  an  average  calorific  value  of  291  heat  units  per  cubic 
foot. 


74  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


SEMI-WATER     GAS 

or,  as  designated  in  England,  Dowson  gas,  from  the  name  of  the 
inventor  of  a  water-gas  making  plant,  has  the  following  average 
composition : 

Hydrogen,  H 18 . 73  per  cent. 

Marsh-gas,  (methane),  CH4 .31 

Olefiant  gas,  C2H4 31 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO 25 .07 

Carbonic  acid,  CO2 6 . 57 

Oxygen,  0 03 

Nitrogen,  N 48.98 

100.00      " 
It  has  a  calorific  value  of  about  150  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

PETROLEUM   PRODUCTS   USED    IN    EXPLOSIVE    ENGINES 

The  principal  products  derived  from  crude  petroleum  for  power 
purposes  may  commercially  come  under  the  names  of  gasoline, 
naphtha  (three  grades,  B,  C,  and  A),  kerosene,  gas-oil,  and  crude 
oil. 

The  first  distillate:  Rhigoline,  boiling  at  113°  F.,  specific  gravity 
0.59  to  0.60;  chimogene,  boiling  at  from  122°  to  138°  F.,  specific 
gravity  0.625;  gasoline,  boiling  at  from  140°  to  158°  F.,  specific 
gravity  0.636  to  0.657;  naphtha  "C"  (by  some  also  called  benzine), 
boiling  from  160°  to  216°  F.,  specific  gravity  0.66  to  0.70;  naphtha 
"B"  (ligroine),  boiling  at  from  200°  to  240°  F.,  specific  gravity 
0.71  to  0.74;  naphtha  "A"  (putzoel),  boiling  at  from  250°  to  300°  F. 

The  commercial  gasoline  of  the  American  trade  is  a  combina- 
tion of  the  above  fractional  distillates,  boiling  at  from  125°  to  200° 
F.,  specific  gravity  0.63  to  0.74. 

Kerosene,  boiling  at  from  300°  to  500°  F.,  specific  gravity  0.76 
to  0.80. 

Gas-oil,  boiling  at  above  500°  F.,  specific  gravity  above  0.80. 

Crude  petroleum,  boiling  uncertain  from  its  mixed  constituents, 
specific  gravity  about  0.80. 

The  vapor  of  commercial  gasoline  at  60°  F.  is  equal  to  1,200 
volumes  of  the  liquid,  sustains  a  water  pressure  of  from  6  to  8 


THE  MATERIAL  OF   POWER  IN  EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES     75 


inches,  and  will  maintain  a  working  pressure  of  2  inches,  or  equal 
to  any  gas  service  when  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  60°  F., 
and  with  an  evaporating  surface  equal  to  5J  square  feet  per  re- 
quired horse-power,  using  proportions  of  6  volumes  of  air  to  1 
volume  of  gasoline-vapor. 

Commercial  kerosene  requires  a  temperature  of  95°  F.  to  main- 
tain a  vapor  pressure  of  from  J  to  J-inch  water  pressure,  requiring 
a  much  larger  evaporating  surface  than  for  gasoline.  It  may  be 
vaporized  by  heat  from  the  exhaust,  and  is  so  used  in  several  types 
of  oil-engines. 

TABLE  XII. — PERCENTAGE,  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  AND  FLASHING-POINT  OF  THE 
PRODUCTS  OF  PETROLEUM. 


Products. 

Per  Cent, 
of  Each. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Flashing- 
Point,  F. 

Rhigolene  and  chimogene  

trace 

Gasoline                 ) 

02 

0  650 

10° 

Benzine  naphtha  [•  Commercial  gasoline 

10 

0  700 

14 

Kerosene,  light  .  ) 
Kerosene,  medium  

.10 
.35 

0.730 
0  800 

50 
150 

Kerosene   heavy       

.10 

0  890 

270 

Lubricating  oil     ,  .  .  .    . 

.10 

0  905 

315 

Cylinder-oil  

.05 

0  915 

360 

Vaseline  

.02 

0.925 

Residuum  and  loss 

16 

1.00 

GASOLINE 

The  gasoline  of  the  American  trade  varies  somewhat  in  specific 
gravity  from  0.70  to  0.74  as  measured  by  the  Baume  scale.  Seventy 
is  a  light  grade  and  0.74  is  termed  stove  gasoline  from  its  general 
use  for  heating. 

The  analysis  of  71  gravity  gives  carbon,  838;  hydrogen,  155; 
impurities,  007  in  1,000  parts,  with  a  heating  value  of  above  18,000 
thermal  units  per  pound. 

The  variation  in  gravity  of  gasoline  is  due  to  the  percentage  of 
hydrogen.  The  vapor  of  gasoline  is  equal  to  160  cubic  feet  per 
gallon  or  about  1,200  times  its  liquid  bulk. 

A  saturated  "air-gas"  of  equal  parts  air  and  vapor  equals  320 


76  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

cubic  feet  per  gallon  of  liquid.  It  is  non-explosive  and  much  used 
as  an  illuminating  gas. 

Seventy-four  gravity  gasoline  weighs  6.16  pounds  per  gallon; 

18  000 
its  pure  vapor  is  26  cubic  feet  per  pound  and     '       =  692  heat  units 

per  cubic  foot.  The  evaporation  of  gasoline  at  atmospheric  pres- 
sure varies  approximately  as  the  relative  squares  of  the  tempera- 
ture; so  that  in  summer,  with  a  temperature  of  80°  F.,  the  evapora- 
tion may  be  four  times  greater  than  in  winter  at  a  temperature  of 
40°.  Hence  a  carbureter  may  do  four  times  as  much  work  in 
evaporation,  without  artificial  heat,  at  one  time  as  at  another. 

Under  the  varying  temperatures  to  which  carbureters  are  subject 
from  atmospheric  and  surface  conditions,  the  more  evaporating 
surface  the  generator  presents,  the  stronger  and  more  uniform  will 
be  the  quality  of  the  gas  furnished. 

The  boiling-point  of  gasoline,  such  as  is  usually  in  use  for  explo- 
sive engines,  ranges  from  150°  to  180°  F.,  and  the  flashing-point  of 
the  liquid  ranges  from  10°  to  14°  F.  The  complete  combustion  of 
the  vapor  of  gasoline  from  one  pound  of  the  liquid  requires  189  cubic 

189 
feet  of  air,  and  as  one  pound  is  equal  to  26  cubic  feet  of  vapor,  — 

=  7.3,  so  that  1  part  gasoline-vapor  to  7.3  parts  air  may  be  said  to 
produce  a  perfect  combustion  of  the  mixture,  so  that  less  parts  of 
air  may  leave  a  residuum  of  unconsumed  vapor  in  the  exhaust, 
while  an  excess  of  air  may  add  to  the  fuel  efficiency  up  to  a  possible 
limit  of  1  part  vapor  to  10  parts  air. 

KEROSENE     OIL 

Kerosene  oil  is  now  taking  a  front  rank  among  the  fuels  for 
explosive  power,  and  crude  petroleum  is  growing  in  favor  as  the 
most  economical  explosive-power  fuel  in  use.  Kerosene-oil  motors 
are  largely  in  the  market  and  a  number  of  concerns  are  building 
motors  for  crude-oil  fuel.  A  " fuel-oil"  (distillate)  obtained  from 
the  residue  after  the  kerosene  has  passed  over  from  the  still,  and  a 
grade  cheaper  than  kerosene,  is  becoming  available  as  an  explosive- 
power  fuel. 

Kerosene  has  a  variable  specific  gravity  from  0.78  to  0.82,  a 


THE  MATERIAL   OF   POWER  IN   EXPLOSIVE    ENGINES    77 

vapor  flashing-point  at  120°  to  125°  F.,  and  the  oil  ignites  when 
heated  to  about  135°  F.,  and  boils  at  about  400°  F.  Its  vapor  is 
five  times  heavier  than  air  and  requires  about  190  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  pound  for  its  complete  combustion,  or  76  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  cubic  foot  of  its  vapor.  Its  heat  of  combustion  varies  slightly 
from  22,000  B.T.U.  per  pound. 

Fuel-oil  (distillate)  has  an  average  specific  gravity  of  0.82  and 
weighs  7.3  pounds  per  gallon.  Its  vapor-flashing  temperature  is 
at  218°  F.,  and  temperature  of  distillation  above  400°  F.,  and  it  has 
a  heat-unit  value  of  about  18,000  per  pound. 

Crude  petroleum  varies  considerably  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
United  States  in  its  chemical  composition  and  specific  gravity, 
with  an  average  of  85,  C.  14  H,  1.0  in  100  parts,  and  0.88  to 
0.90  sp.  gr.  Its  heating  value  is  about  20,500  B.T.U. 

Crude  petroleum  and  kerosene  are  available  also  by  injection 
in  a  class  of  oil-engines  of  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  and  Weiss  type, 
in  which  the  oil. can  be  so  atomized  and  vaporized  as  to  make  its 
entire  volume  available  as  an  explosive  combustible,  in  order 
that  the  accumulation  of  refuse  shall  be  at  a  minimum.  Crude  oil 
is  also  used  in  the  "Best"  oil- vapor  and  other  crude-oil  engines  by 
vaporizing  the  oil  in  chambers  heated  by  the  exhaust  of  the  motor. 

ACETYLENE     GAS 
FOR   EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES 

Much  interest  has  been  lately  shown  and  some  experiments 
made  in  regard  to  the  availability  of  carbide  of  calcium  for  gen- 
erating acetylene  gas  as  a  fuel  in  the  motive  power  of  the  horseless 
carriage  and  launches.  Liquid  acetylene  has  been  also  suggested 
as  the  acme  of  concentrated  fuel  for  power. 

The  gas  liquefies  at  —116°  F.  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and 
at  68°  F.  at  597  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its  liquid  volume  is  about 
62  cubic  inches  per  pound. 

The  specific  gravity  of  pure  gaseous  acetylene  (C2  H2)  is  0.91 
(air  1),  and  its  percentage  of  carbon  0.923,  and  of  hydrogen  0.077. 
Its  great  density  as  compared  with  other  illuminating  gases  and 
the  large  percentage  of  carbon  is  probably  the  source  of  its  won- 
derful light-giving  power. 


78  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

It  is  credited  by  hydrocarbon-heat  values  with  18,260  thermal 
units  per  pound  of  the  gas  (14J  cubic  feet)  and  1,259  thermal  units 
per  cubic  foot.  These  figures  vary  in  published  statements. 

One  volume  of  the  gas  requires  2J  volumes  of  oxygen  for  perfect 
combustion,  which  is  equivalent  to  12J  volumes  of  air,  provided 
that  all  the  oxygen  of  the  air  can  be  utilized  in  the  operation  of  a 
gas-engine;  probably  the  best  and  most  economical  effect  can  be 
had  from  the  proportion  of  1  of  acetylene  to  14  or  15  of  air.  This 
proportion  has  been  used  in  Italian  motors  with  the  best  effect. 

One  pound  of  calcium  carbide  will  yield  5f  cubic  feet  of  acety- 
lene gas,  and  requires  a  little  over  a  half  pound  of  water  to  com- 
pletely liberate  the  gas,  so  that  where  weight  is  a  factor,  as  with 
carriages,  tricycles,  and  bicycles,  the  output  of  gas  will  be  but  3.83 
cubic  feet  per  pound  of  generating  material.  The  large  proportion 
of  air  required  for  perfect  combustion  makes  a  favorable  compen- 
sation for  the  necessity  for  carrying  water  for  generating  the  gas, 
as  compared  with  gasoline,  which  yields  26  cubic  feet  of  vapor  per 
liquid  pound  with  its  best  explosive  effect  of  9  volumes  of  air  to  1 
volume  of  vapor. 

In  liberating  the  gas  from  carbide  in  a  closed  vessel  the  pressure 
may  rise  to  a  dangerous  point,  depending  upon  the  clearance  space 
in  the  vessel,  say  from  300  to  800  pounds  per  square  inch.  In 
this  manner  a  few  accidents  have  occurred. 

One  pound  of  liquid  acetylene,  when  evaporated  at  64°  F., 
will  produce  14 J  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  atmospheric  pressure,  or  a 
volume  400  times  larger  than  that  of  the  liquid.  Its  critical 
point  of  liquefaction  is  stated  to  be  98°  F.;  above  this  tempera- 
ture it  does  not  liquefy,  but  continues  under  the  gaseous  state  at 
great  pressures. 

The  heat-unit  value  of  acetylene  gas  from  its  peculiar  hydro- 
carbon elements,  it  will  be  seen,  is  far  greater  than  that  of  gasoline- 
vapor  per  cubic  foot,  but  experiments  seem  to  have  cast  a  doubt 
upon  its  theoretical  value,  and  assigned  a  much  less  amount,  or 
about  868  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

As  the  comparative  volume  of  explosive  mixtures  of  gas  or 
vapor  and  air  is  largely  in  favor  of  acetylene  over  gasoline,  and 
as  the  weight  of  material  for  a  given  horse-power  per  hour  also 
favors  the  use  of  acetylene,  it  will  no  doubt  become  a  useful  and 


THE   MATERIAL   OF  POWER  IN  EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES    79 

economical  element  of  explosive  power  for  vehicles  and  launches; 
always  provided  that  the  commercial  production  of  carbide  of 
calcium  becomes  available  as  a  merchandise  factor  in  cities  and 
towns. 

The  explosive  mixture  of  acetylene  and  air  spontaneously  fires 
at  lower  temperatures  than  illuminating-gas  mixtures;  it  varies 
from  509°  to  515°  F.,  while  illuminating-gas  mixtures  range  from 
750°  to  800°  F.  Claims  of  a  higher  temperature  have  been  made. 
It  is  of  doubtful  availability  for  high-compression  motors. 

In  the  use  of  liquid  acetylene,  the  cost  of  liquefying  the  gas 
may  be  a  bar  to  its  ordinary  use,  but  for  special  purposes  there 
are  possibilities  that  only  future  experiments  and  trials  may  de- 
velop into  useful  work  from  this  unique  element.  In  trials  of 
acetylene  for  power  in  gas-engines,  made  in  Paris,  France,  it  was 
found  that  a  much  less  volume  of  acetylene  was  required  for  equal 
work  with  illuminating  gas  and  that  it  was  a  practical  explosive 
fuel.  The  only  change  required  was  found  to  be  a  more  perfect 
regulation  of  the  valve  movement,  or  a  smaller  valve  to  meet  the 
smaller  volume  of  acetylene.  In  these  experiments  the  explosive 
mixture  was  approximately  10  parts  air  to  1  part  acetylene;  and 
using  from  4  to  7  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  horse-power  per  hour. 

From  another  account  of  trials  in  France,  it  appears,  as  the 
result  of  experiments  made  by  M.  Ravel,  that  6.35  cubic  feet  of 
acetylene  gas  generate  1  horse-power  per  hour,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  reduction  of  two-thirds  as  compared  with  petroleum. 
As  to  the  explosiveness  of  mixtures  of  air  and  acetylene,  it  was 
found  that  1.35  parts  of  this  gas  mixed  with  1  part  of  air  began 
to  be  explosive,  the  explosive  force  of  such  mixture  rising  rapidly 
as  the  dilution  with  air  increases,  attaining  finally  a  maximum 
when  there  are  12  volumes  of  air  with  1  volume  of  acetylene;  then 
as  the  proportion  of  air  is  increased  beyond  this  limit,  the  explo- 
sive force  subsides,  until  at  20  to  1  it  becomes  entirely  extinct. 
The  flashing-point  approximates  900°  F.,  whereas  in  the  case  of 
most  other  gases  used  to  generate  power  the  requisite  ignition 
temperature  is  about  1,100°  F.  The  temperature  of  combustion 
is  very  much  higher  than  that  of  the  other  gases  with  which  it 
can  be  compared.  The  special  characteristics  of  this  gas,  there- 
fore, are  great  rapidity  of  the  transmission  of  flame,  low-ignition 


80  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

temperature,    high-combustion    temperature,    and    extraordinary 
energy  evolved  in  the  explosion. 

For  the  comparison  of  gasoline  and  acetylene,  a  series  of  tests 
were  made  with  mixtures  of  air  and  vaporized  gasoline  in  the 
ratio  4  to  1,  which  gave  the  greatest  explosive  pressure,  165  pounds, 
at  initial  pressure  of  20  pounds.  At  the  same  initial  pressure  the 

273 

9  to  1  mixture  of  air  and  acetylene  produced  a  pressure  77  greater 


than  that  by  the  gasoline,  so  that  the  volume  of  acetylene  to  give 

1        1  Ar 

the  same  pressure  need  only  be  -Xzr=  0.304  of  the  gasoline. 


Taking  the  theoretical  indicator  diagrams  for  the  explosion  of 
these  two  mixtures,  the  area  of  the  acetylene  diagram  measured 
4.91  square  inches,  and  that  of  gasoline  1.79  square  inches,  giving 
a  ratio  of  power  nearly  3  to  1.  Indicator  diagrams  show  that  the 
time  rate  of  the  actylene  explosion  is  five  times  faster  than  that 
of  the  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air.  As  vaporized  gasoline  acts 
more  slowly  than  acetylene,  the  practical  test  makes  acetylene 
(mixture  9  to  1)  3.28  times  more  powerful  than  gasoline  (ratio 
of  4  to  1),  whereas  theoretically  it  should  be  only  3  times  as  great. 

The  calorific  value  of  the  acetylene  used  was  1,350  thermal 
units  and  that  of  gasoline  700  heat  units  per  cubic  foot.  A  cubic 
foot  of  each  of  the  above  mixtures  at  initial  atmospheric  pressure 
would  give  90  pounds  and  43  pounds  per  square  inch  respectively. 
Allowed  to  expand  adiabatically  to  10  cubic  feet,  the  calculated 
external  work, 

K  l  '  (where  K=  :  • 


would  be  for  acetylene  22,403  foot-pounds,  and  for  gasoline  12,132 
foot-pounds.  But  only  0.0625  cubic  foot  of  acetylene  was  used, 
while  0.20  cubic  foot  of  gasoline-vapor  was  needed,  or  3.2  times 
as  much.  With  the  given  ratios  of  mixtures  only  0.0312  cubic 
foot  of  acetylene  is  required  to  do  the  same  work  that  0.20  cubic 
foot  of  vaporized  gasoline  will  do.  Or  comparing  equal  quantities 
of  the  two  gases,  acetylene  has  about  6.5  times  the  intrinsic  energy 
of  vaporized  gasoline  at  the  given  ratios  of  air  and  gas. 

Assuming  an  engine  of  total  efficiency  from  fuel  to  useful  work 


THE  MATERIAL  OF   POWER   IN  EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES    81 

of  15  per  cent.,  and  a  consumption  of  22  cubic  feet  of  gasoline- 
vapor  per  horse-power  per  hour,  the  cost  of  1-horse-power  hour 
would  be  1.3  cents,  at  58  cents  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  vaporized 
gasoline.  The  cost  per  horse-power  per  hour  for  acetylene  in  an 
engine  of  equal  efficiency  would  be  2.6  cents,  with  acetylene  $8 
per  1,000  cubic  feet,  or  4  cents  per  pound.  To  do  the  same  work 
with  acetylene  in  place  of  vaporized  gasoline,  therefore,  would  be 
about  twice  as  expensive.  For  this  reason  acetylene  would  only 
be  of  practical  use  to  produce  power  where  safety  and  light  compact 
engines  were  required,  as  in  automobiles  and  launches.  In  the 
event  of  a  50  per  cent,  reduction  in  the  price  of  calcium  carbide, 
however,  it  might  probably  come  into  more  general  use  for  gas- 
engines. 

ALCOHOL  AS  A  MOTIVE  POWER 

For  some  time  past  the  French  public  has  been  studying  a 
question  interesting  from  the  stand-point  of  the  engineer,  impor- 
tant from  an  economical  point  of  view;  the  question  of  alcohol 
in  its  domestic  and  industrial  applications.  Among  the  latter  the 
utilization  of  this  combustible  in  explosive  motors  is  the  most 
interesting,  and  this  is  why  the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  sub- 
stituting for  imported  gasoline  a  national  product  resulting  from 
French  or  colonial  crops.  One  of  the  unquestioned  advantages 
of  alcohol  over  gasoline  is  that  alcohol  is  a  fixed  product,  what- 
ever may  be  its  use.  The  same  alcohol  for  motive  purposes  can 
therefore  be  produced  in  any  part  of  the  globe,  and  its  origin  is 
revealed  only  by  special  aromas,  which  are  of  no  consequence 
when  it  is  used  as  a  motive  force. 

If  the  consumption  of  alcohol-motors  is  compared  with  that 
of  gasoline  it  is  seen  at  once  that  the  former  consumes  consider- 
ably more  than  the  latter;  and  as  the  alcohol  is  the  more  costly 
of  the  two  combustibles,  the  problem  would  seem  h  priori  insolu- 
ble from  an  economic  point  of  view. 

Since  denatured  alcohol  contains  4,172  heat  units  per  pound, 
while  gasoline  contains  18,000,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
raise  the  calorific  power 'of  the  former  and  at  the  same  time  lower 
its  price,  and  so  it  has  been  mixed  with  high-grade  gasoline  of 


82  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

70°  gravity,  which  contains  about  18,000  heat  units  per  pound, 
and  which  can  be  produced  under  good  conditions  at  a  low  net 
cost.  Mixtures  containing  from  50  per  cent,  to  75  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  have  been  used;  but  it  is  the  50  per  cent,  mixture,  which 
has  a  calorific  power  of  11,086  heat  units  per  pound,  which  seems 
to  be  the  most  advantageous  at  the  present  state  of  development. 
From  the  result  of  numerous  trials  made  in  France  it  has  been 
found  that  the  consumption  of  50  per  cent,  carburet  ted  alcohol 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  gasoline  for  a  given  power,  and  this 
notwithstanding  the  difference  in  the  theoretical  calorific  powers 
of  the  two  combustibles,  from  which  it  follows  that  the  efficiency 
of  the  alcohol-motor  is  greater  than  that  of  the  gasoline. 

Some  very  exact  experiments  made  by  Prof.  Musil  at  Berlin 
have  shown  the  efficiency  of  various  kinds  of  motors  to  be  as  follows: 
Motors  run  on  city  gas  (according  to  the  type),  18  to  31  per  cent.; 
portable  steam-motors,  13;  kerosene-motors,  13;  gasoline-motors, 
16;  alcohol-motors  (mean  figure),  23.8  per  cent. 

The  high  efficiency  is  evidently  due  to  the  great  elasticity  de- 
rived from  the  expansion  of  the  water-vapor  that  is  contained 
or  produced  by  the  alcohol  at  the  moment  of  its  combustion,  this 
expansion  tending  to  make  the  explosions  in  the  cylinders  less 
violent  than  when  gasoline  is  used,  and  thus  giving  a  longer  life 
to  the  wearing  parts  of  the  motor.  So  much  has  this  been  found 
to  be  the  case  that  in  order  to  increase  the  beneficial  action  of  the 
water-vapor  the  German  Motor  Construction  Company,  of  Marien- 
feld,  recommends  a  mixture  containing  20  per  cent,  of  water,  and 
it  has  built  motors  to  run  on  such  a  mixture  that  consume  only  .17 
pound  per  horse-power  hour.  The  fact  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  in  order  to  secure  good  efficiency  with  either  pure  or  carburetted 
alcohol  recourse  must  be  had  to  specially  constructed  motors  hav- 
ing the  following  characteristics :  the  stroke  nearly  double  the  bore, 
high  compression,  and  a  good  spark. 

Finally,  the  result  of  the  latest  experiments  recently  made  in 
France  on  the  " Economic"  motor,  which  was  specially  constructed 
for  use  with  alcohol,  has  been  a  lowering  of  the  consumption  to 
.124  pound  per  horse-power  hour  for  medium-sized  motors,  em- 
ploying a  50  per  cent,  mixture  of  carburetted  alcohol.  For  sta- 
tionary motors  the  problem  is  therefore  solved. 


THE  MATERIAL  OF   POWER   IN  EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES    83 

When  it  has  to  do  with  automobiles  the  substitution  of  alcohol 
carburetted  with  gasoline  is  a  matter  of  great  interest,  for  it  is 
evident  from  statistics  that  if  a  liquid  containing  50  per  cent, 
denatured  alcohol  could  be  used,  a  large  industry  would  be 
induced. 

As  the  results  of  late  trials  in  France,  the  thermal  efficiency 
of  the  following  fuels  of  power  are  given:  for  gasoline,  14  to  1.8 
per  cent.;  kerosene,  13  per  cent.;  gas,  18  to  31  per  cent.,  and 
for  alcohol,  24  to  28  per  cent.  The  efficiency  of  gasolene  and 
kerosene  has  been  greatly  improved  in  the  United  States  in  the 
last  few  years. 

With  the  use  of  alcohol,  an  oxidizing  effect  has  been  noticed  on 
valves  and  seats  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid  derived  from  the 
occasional  incomplete  combustion  of  the  alcohol  and  contained 
in  the  large  amount  of  water- vapor  from  the  hydrogen  element  in 
the  alcohol. 

This  will,  no  doubt,  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  non-corrosive 
valves  and  seats  made  from  alloys  that  resist  the  action  of  acetic 
acid. 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  if  the  purchasers  of  automo- 
biles required  of  the  manufacturers  carriages  that  would  work 
equally  well  on  50  per  cent,  carburetted  alcohol  or  gasoline  the 
manufacturers  would  devise  practical  and  simple  apparatus,  so 
that  one  combustible  could  be  immediately  substituted  for  the 
other,  and  that  supply  stations  having  carburetted  alcohol  would 
soon  be  established. 

A  little  perseverance  and  attention  is  all  that  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  make  the  alcohol-motor  prosper,  as  has  already  been 
done  in  Germany  and  France. 

It  is  the  consensus  of  opinion,  and  so  far  verified  by  practical 
work,  that  the  regulation  of  the  power  of  the  explosive  motor  has 
its  most  economical  working  condition,  first,  in  the  variation  of 
the  quantity  of  fuel  injected  within  certain  limits  for  its  highest 
explosive  force  with  certain  mixtures  of  air;  and  second,  beyond 
this  limit  by  the  regulation  of  the  quantity  of  the  fuel  and  air 
mixture  in  their  best  proportions  for  highest  effect. 

It  has  been  shown  in  other  parts  of  this  work  that  mixtures 
of  good  illuminating  gas,  one  part  to  between  five  and  six  parts 


84  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

air,  give  the  highest  constant  volume  pressure  and  the  highest 
temperature  by  explosive  combustion.  Also  that  the  time  of 
combustion  is  quickest  under  the  above  proportion.  But  for  all 
kinds  of  fuel  there  is  a  proportion  of  air  mixture  that  gives  the 
highest  explosive  pressure  per  unit  of  fuel  quantity,  and  for  eco- 
nomic work.  This  proportion  should  be  retained  by  the  governing 
mechanism  for  economic  power. 

There  may  be  occasions  when  the  over-riding  of  economical 
fuel  conditions  is  done  for  imaginary  conveniences  in  handling 
high-speed  automobiles  and  launches,  which  are  mostly  through 
misguided  judgment  in  regard  to  the  best  conditions  of  running,  or 
from  the  ignorance  of  drivers  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  clouds 
of  gasoline-vapor  seen  following  the  track  of  their  vehicles  or 
launches. 

This  condition  is  daily  witnessed  by  the  author  from  his  resi- 
dence, where  the  whirl  of  automobiles,  at  unlicensed  speed,  is  in 
constant  view,  with  a  too  frequent  following  of  a  cloud  of  gasoline- 
vapor  that  floats  into  the  dwellings  with  its  peculiar  odor  that 
signifies  unburned  vapor  from  excessive  fuel  feed;  a  needless  waste 
that  is  a  nuisance  to  the  following  vehicles  and  to  roadside  dwellers. 

From  the  fact  that  it  requires  7.3  parts  of  air  to  1  part  of  gaso- 
line-vapor for  perfect  combustion,  it  is  obvious  that  the  feeding  of 
an  excess  of  this  fuel  is  not  only  a  waste,  but  is  also  a  loss  of  power, 
due  to  decrease  of  explosive  pressure  as  the  proportions  are  de- 
creased in  the  charge  mixture.  The  control  by  the  fuel  inlet  alone 
should  be  confined  to  within  the  limits  of  7.3  of  air  to  1  of  vapor, 
and  12  of  air  to  1  of  vapor;  beyond  these  limits  the  control  should 
include  both  air  and  fuel  for  economy  and  road-followers'  comfort. 


CHAPTER  IX 


CARBURETERS 

THE  use  of  the  vapor  of  gasoline,  naphtha,  and  petroleum 
oil  for  operating  internal-combustion  engines  is  increasing  to  a 
vast  extent  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  and  will  be  no  doubt 
the  cheapest  medium  for  generating  power  so  long  as  petroleum 
and  its  products  are  at  the  present  low  price.  In  gas-engine  run- 
ning, air  saturated  with  the  vapor  of  gasoline  and  naphtha  is  in 
general  use,  and  when  so  used  is  produced  by  passing  air  through 
the  liquid  or  over  a  surface  largely  extended  by  capillary  attraction 


v 
^ 

V 


FIG.  25. — The  circular  carbu- 
reter, plan. 


FIG.  26. — The  circular  carbureter, 
section. 


of  the  fluid  by  fibrous  surfaces  dipping  into  the  fluid,  by  vaporiz- 
ing the  fluid  by  means  of  the  heat  of  the  exhaust,  and  by  injecting 
the  fluid  in  small  portions  into  the  air-inlet  chamber  or  under  its 
valve,  and  directly  into  the  clearance  space  of  the  cylinder. 

In  Figs.  25  and  26  are  illustrated  a  form  of  carbureter,  made 
by  the  writer  many  years  since,  for  carbureting  air  and  low-grade 
illuminating  gas. 

This  carbureter  may  be  made  of  heavy  tin-plate.  The  spiral 
partition,  made  of  tin-plate,  is  perforated  with  sufficient  small 
holes  at  top  and  bottom  to  fasten  strips  of  cotton  or  woollen  flannel 

85 


86 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


on  both  sides  of  the  spiral  plate  by  stitching  with  coarse  thread 
and  needle.  The  spiral  plate  should  extend  so  as  to  nearly  touch 
the  bottom  of  the  tank;  the  bottom  is  to  be  soldered  on  last.  The 
valve  V,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  escape  of  the  vapor 

when  the  carbureter  is  not 

A  A 

in  use,  may  be  made  as  light 
as  possible,  of  tin-plate  or 
brass,  and  faced  with  soft 
leather  wet  with  glycerine 
or  a  composition  of  glyce- 
rine and  glue  jelly,  which 
always  keeps  soft  and  is 


33: 


FIG.  27. — Plan  and  section  of  ventilating 
carbureter. 


not  injured  by  the  gasoline 
or  its  vapor.  By  this  arrangement  many  square  feet  of  surface 
may  be  obtained  in  a  small  space  and  perfect  uniformity  of  satu- 
ration insured.  As  the  enclosed  walls  of  this  form  become  very 
cold  by  long-continued  use,  an  improvement  was  made  by  making 
each  division  wall  with  an  outside  air  surface,  so  that  there  was 
a  natural  down-draught  of  air  on  the  outside  of  the  entire 
.evaporating  surface  of  the  carbureter.  In  Figs.  27  and  28  are 
shown  the  plan  and  sections. 

In  this  form  the  air  spaces  prevent  excessive  cold  by  a  circu- 
lation of  air  downward  against  the  cooling  surface  of  the  walls — • 
the  whole  interior  vertical  walls  being  lined  with  cloth  fastened  to 
a  wire  frame  made  to  fit  each  section  and  pushed  into  place  before 
the  ends  of  the  sections  are  soldered  on. 

Very  good  carbureters  have  been  made  by  a  long  cast-iron 
box  with  a  cover  bolted 
on  with  a  packing  of  glue 
and  glycerine  jelly  on  felt 
or  asbestos  packing,  in 
which'  a  frame  of  wire- 
work  and  cloth  or  yarn 
is  made  to  give  the  de- 
sired evaporating  surface. 

For  any  carbureter  of  the  forms  here  described,  the  depth 
should  be  limited  to  8  inches,  as  the  capillarity  of  the  fibrous  ma- 
terial is  of  little  or  no  value  at  a  greater  height  than  6  inches  above 


^ 


r  r, 
I-^-1" 


FIG.  28. — Section  of  ventilating  carbureter. 


CARBURETERS 


87 


the  fluid,  which  should  not  be  charged  above  3  inches  in  depth 
for  best  effect. 

In  Fig.  29  is  represented  the  carbureter  of  the  Gilbert  &  Barker 
Manufacturing  Company,  Springfield,  Mass.  It  is  made  of  wrought 
iron,  has  four  divisions,  in  which  perforated  capillary  partitions 
are  set  around  each  division  or  story  of  the  carbureter,  thus  greatly 
enlarging  the  evaporating  surface.  The  air  enters  the  lower  com- 
partment, becomes  saturated,  and  leaves  the  carbureter  from  the 
top.  Provision  is  made  for  pumping  out  any  residue  that  may 
require  removal  when  the  carbureter  is  placed  underground. 


FIG.  29. — Gilbert  &  Barker  carbureter. 

Many  other  forms  of  carbureter  have  been  tried,  without, 
however,  securing  better  results  than  -with  those  here  described. 

Air  saturated  with  gasoline-vapor  has  a  heat  value  of  about 
200  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

A  claim  has  been  made  in  France  that  by  saturating  part  of 
the  exhaust  and  by  heating  the  gasoline,  also  by  the  exhaust,  a 
concentrated  vapor  was  produced  which,  used  with  the  air,  pro- 


88  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OILENGINES 

duced  a  power  value  of  y-^  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  per  horse-power 
per  hour.  There  is  no  doubt  that  greater  economics  are  in  prog- 
ress in  the  operation  of  gasoline  and  oil-engines;  but  the  use  of 
part  of  the  products  of  combustion  from  the  exhaust  tends  to  lessen  . 
its  value,  if  it  has  a  value  above  its  use  as  a  part  of  the  contents 
of  the  clearance  space  now  in  use  in  engines  of  the  compression 
class. 

The  evaporation  of  gasoline  of  0.74  specific  gravity  at  a  tem- 
perature of  60°  F.  varies  somewhat  from  the  form  of  its  element- 
ary constituents,  and  from  the  form  of  the  evaporating  surface;  so 
that  an  average  of  1,173  grains  per  square  foot  of  saturated  surface 
per  hour  in  the  open  air  may  be  assumed  as  the  basis  for  carburet- 
ing surface. 

When  evaporated  in  a  closed  vessel,  as  a  carbureter,  the  vapor 
may  start  at  about  1,000  grains  per  square  foot  of  surface  per  hour; 
but  if  the  area  of  evaporating  surface  is  so  extended  that  little 
or  no  tension  or  pressure  is  produced  by  its  evaporation,  due  to  the 
draught  upon  it  by  the  motor,  and  the  temperature  of  the  gasoline 
is  kept  near  to  60°  F.,  the  evaporation  may  be  relied  on  at  about 
800  grains  per  square  foot  per  hour. 

This  gives  a  basis  for  computing  the  area  of  carburetted  sur- 
face at  any  assumed  consumption  of  gasoline  per  horse-power  per 
hour.  For  example,  gasoline  weighing  6  pounds  per  gallon,  with 
an  assumed  requirement  of  y-g  of  a  gallon  per  horse-power  per 
hour,  and  an  evaporation  of  800  grains  per  hour  per  square  foot, 

T6o-X  7,000 
will  require  —  T.  —    =5J  square  feet  of  evaporating  surface  in 


the  carbureter  per  horse-power. 

With  our  present  experience  there  is  no  doubt  in  regard  to 
the  advantage,  economy,  and  safety  in  the  use  of  carbureters  for 
gasoline,  in  which  the  air  becomes  thoroughly  saturated  with 
the  gasoline-vapor  before  it  meets  the  free  air  at  the  charging 
valve.  Air  saturated  with  gasoline-vapor  is  not  explosive,  and 
is  considered  in  practice  to  be  as  safe  in  pipes  and  gas  holders 
as  any  other  gas  used  for  illuminating  purposes.  It  does  not 
become  explosive  until  further  diluted  to  5  parts  of  air  to  1  part- 
pure  vapor.  The  mixture  of  air  saturated  with  vapor  of  gasoline 
is  largely  in  use  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  for  illuminating 


CARBURETERS  89 

purposes,  conditioned  as  to  safety  and  favorable  insurance;  there- 
fore there  is  no  bar  to  its  use  under  the  same  conditions  as  an 
explosive  element  for  power.  Its  safety  will  always  be  insured 
by  an  excess  of  evaporating  surface  in  the  carbureter. 

So  far  as  experience  goes  the  sufficiency  of  the  carbureter 
surface  is  a  most  important  detail  in  its  application  for  the  fuel 
supply  of  a  gasoline-engine,  and  its  deficiency  has  been  at  the 
bottom  of  much  trouble  with  the  builders  of  these  engines. 

A  point  of  great  value  in  the  economy  of  fuel  has  been  brought 
out  by  German  engineers,  in  trials  as  to  the  time  of  combustion 
in  a  cylinder  and  its  relation  to  the  perfection  of  the  mixture  of 
air  and  vapor.  It  was  demonstrated  experimentally  that  in  the 
ordinary  method  of  mixing  a  pure  gas  or  vapor  with  air,  at  the 
instant  of  injection  into  the  cylinder  did  not  produce  an  instan- 
taneous explosion,  but  from  the  first  impulse  the  combustion  con- 
tinued throughout  the  stroke  with  a  portion  of  unburned  gas  in  the 
exhaust.  This  resulted,  as  observed,  in  a  reduced  initial  pressure 
and  consequent  reduced  efficiency  by  the  indicator  card.  The 
continued  combustion  also  increased  the  heat  of  the  cylinder,  as 
shown  by  the  increase  of  temperature  of  a  stated  quantity  of 
water  for  cooling  a  slow-combustion  cylinder. 

It  was  found  experimentally  that  an  injection  of  equal  parts 
of  gas  and  air  into  a  cylinder  required  6  seconds  to  become  fully 
diffused,  and  that  1  part  of  gas  to  6  parts  of  air  required  from  10 
to  12  seconds  for  perfect  diffusion.  When,  therefore,  the  time 
of  a  single  revolution  of  a  gas  or  gasoline-engine  is  considered,  as 
compared  with  the  time  for  charging  and  compression  in  a  four- 
cycle cylinder,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mixture  cannot  become 
sufficiently  intimate  to  permit  the  desired  instantaneous  explosion 
necessary  for  the  highest  fuel  efficiency. 

The  tendency  of  efficiency  in  gas  and  gasoline-engine  con- 
struction appears  to  be  increasing  in  the  line  of  more  perfect  mixt- 
ure of  the  explosive  fuel  before  injection  into  the  cylinder;  and  to 
this  we  probably  owe  the  possibilities  now  claimed  of  from  12  to 
14  cubic  feet  of  good  illuminating  gas,  and  ^  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  and  which  in  some  cases  has 
raised  the  pressure  of  explosion  to  4  times  the  pressure  of  com- 
pression in  four-cycle  engines. 


90  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

VAPOR-GAS    FOR    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS 

Much  of  the  risk  and  inconvenience  of  handling  gasoline  for 
motive  power  may  be  avoided  by  using  the  mixture  of  air  and 
gasoline-vapor  as  a  gas,  and  under  the  same  conditions  at  the 
motor  as  with  illuminating  gas.  Many  power  plants  now  utilize 
the  vapor  of  gasoline  generated  at  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  motor  cylinder.  This  requires  the  presence  of  gasoline  in 
quantity  within  the  building,  which  largely  increases  the  insur- 
ance risk,  and  is  always  a  source  of  discussion  and  doubt  with 
underwriters. 

The  vapor-gas  as  now  extensively  used  for  lighting  dwellings 
and  factories  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection  in  its  genera- 
tion and  application  to  lighting  purposes,  as  well  also  to  many 
other  applications  of  heat  generated  by  Bunsen  and  other  forms 
of  gas-burners,  that  it  may  now  be  considered  the  most  conven- 
ient form  for  a  gas-generating  system  for  isolated  places,  where 
an  element  is  required  for  both  lighting  and  power.  The  uncer- 
tainty of  perfect  diffusion  of  vapor  and  air  with  the  present  methods 
of  producing  the  mixture  of  vapor  and  air  near  or  within  the  cylin- 
der cannot  be  considered  the  highest  economy  in  the  element  of 
power  production,  in  view  of  the  assumed  fact  that  commercial 
gasoline  of  an  average  of  0.75  gravity,  weighing  about  6}  pounds  per 
gallon,  is  claimed  by  the  builders  of  the  most  economical  motors 
to  require  but  J  gallon  per  actual  horse-power  per  hour.  This 
is  equal  to  0.78  of  a  pound,  and  the  pound  is  credited  with  18,000 
heat  units,  or  14,040  heat  units  per  horse-power  per  hour.  This 
at  778  foot-pounds  per  heat  unit  is  equal  to  10,923,120  foot-pounds 
per  horse-power  per  hour.  The  actual  or  brake  horse-power  per 
hour  is  1,980,000  foot-pounds  or  0.181  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical 
value  of  gasoline.  With  more  perfect  mixtures  of  vapor  of  gaso- 
line and  air  the  percentage  in  efficiency  should  be  increased  and  a 
uniformity  in  the  action  of  the  motor  obtained  by  a  more  perfect 
diffusion  of  the  elements  of  combustion. 

One  of  the  means  for  automatically  regulating  the  mixture 
of  vapor  and  air  is  illustrated  in  the  combined  mixer  and  regulator 
of  the  Gilbert  &  Barker  Mfg.  Co.,  82  John  Street,  New  York,  Fig. 
30,  and  in  Fig.  31,  the  mixer  and  meter  air-pump  placed  within 


CARBURETERS 


91 


a  building.  The  carbureter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29,  p.  87,  is  placed 
in  the  ground  or  a  vault  outside  of  the  building.  The  air  is  forced 
by  the  air  meter-pump  at  a  low  pressure  (1  to  1J  inches  water 
pressure)  to  the  carbureter  on  the  outside  of  the  building  and 
returned  through  another  pipe,  loaded  with  the  vapor  of  gasoline, 
to  the  regulator,  where,  by  a  differential  gravity  balance,  a  sup- 

Connecf"     ft  "ft, 

Qd* 


-G/U 
INLI 


flff  INLLT. 

FIG.  30. — The  differential  gravity  regulator. 

plementary  valve  is  opened  by  which  a  direct  current  of  air  enters 
from  the  pressure-pipe  of  the  air  meter-pump  and  dilutes  the 
direct  vapor  charge  from  the  carbureter  to  a  uniform  mixture, 
thus  producing  a  constant  flow  of  gas  of  a  gravity  for  the  best 
effect  in  lighting,  and  also,  when  further  diluted  at  the  inlet-valve, 
for  the  best  explosive  effect  in  a  motor. 

The  pure  vapor  of  gasoline  is  of  a  gravity  of  2.8  (air  1)  and 
the  air-gas  vapor  as  it  comes  from  the  carbureter  may  be  of  vary- 


92 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


ing  gravities  from  2.5  to  1.5  (air  1),  and  it  is  the  difference  in  the 
gravity  of  air  and  the  heavier  vapor  of  gasoline  and  air  as  it 
comes  from  the  carbureter  that  operates  the  diluting  mechanism 
of  the  apparatus  to  produce  a  mixture  of  uniform  quality.  For 
this  purpose,  the  float  B  is  a  sealed  metal  can,  containing  air 
which  with  its  weight  and  the  air  inlet-valve  C  is  exactly  balanced 
by  an  adjustable  counterpoise  F  and  enclosed  within  a  cast-iron 


FIG.  31. — The  air  pump  and  regulator. 

case.  The  vapor-gas  enters  at  the  bottom  through  an  annular 
inlet  Q  from  the  carbureter  and  fills  the  case  with  a  vapor  mixture 
slightly  heavier  than  the  balanced  can  of  air,  which  is  thus  caused 
to  rise  and  open  the  direct  air  inlet-valve  C,  admitting  air  at  a 
slightly  increased  pressure,  due  to  differential  friction,  as  between 
the  short-air  connection  with  air-pump  and  the  long-pipe  connec- 
tion to  the  carbureter  and  back  to  the  regulator. 

By  the  delicate  adjustment  of  the  counterpoise  weights  at  M 
the  exact  conditions  for  a  uniform  gravity  gas  supply  may  be 


CARBURETERS  93 

obtained  for  lighting.  This  is  assumed  to  be  also  the  most  eco- 
nomical for  combustion  in  an  explosive  motor;  it  then  requiring 
only  the  regulating  admixture  of  air  at  the  inlet-valve  of  the  motor 
cylinder  for  adjusting  the  force  of  explosion  and  for  regulating 
the  speed  of  the  motor. 

Fig.  31  shows  the  arrangement  of  setting  the  air-pump  and 
regulator  with  the  short-circuit  of  the  air-pipe  to  give  a  prepon- 
derance to  the  air  pressure  at  the  regulating  valve  C  (Fig.  30).  For 
motor  service  a  gas  equalizing  bag  should  be  used  as  with  other 
kinds  of  gas  supply. 

A  strong  feature  of  this  carbureter,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  29, 
is  the  large  evaporating  surface,  it  being  in  fact  a  compound  gen- 
erator consisting  of  a  number  of  independent  and  perfect  evapora- 
tors, one  placed  over  the  other.  The  effect  of  cold  by  evaporation 
commences  at  the  bottom  pan,  and  the  saturation  of  the  air  is 
completed  in  the  next  pan,  and  so  on  successively,  so  that  deterio- 
ration does  not  commence  until  the  last  or  top  pan  is  partially 
exhausted. 

The  air-pump  is  of  the  wet-gas  meter  type  with  the  motion 
inverted  and  propelled  by  a  weight  as  shown  in  Fig.  31,  or  by 
a  small  overshot  water-wheel  operated  by  a  jet  from  any  source 
of  water  pressure. 


ATOMIZING    CARBURETERS   AND    VAPORIZERS 

In  Fig.  32  is  illustrated  a  novel  atomizer  and  vaporizer  for  a 
marine  engine.  The  rising  vapor-pipe  is  shortened  in  the  cut  for 
the  convenience  of  illustration. 

The  gasoline  tank  is  placed  in  the  bow  of  the  boat  and  the 
atomizer  at  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  gasoline  flows  to  the 
chamber  F  by  gravity  and  is  stopped  by  the  deep-seated  conical 
valve  E.  The  cage  of  the  air  inlet-valve  D  is  screwed  into  the 
metal  box  at  B  and  is  adjustable  so  as  to  bring  the  push-centre 
of  the  valve  D  to  the  proper  distance  for  operating  the  gasoline 
inlet-valve  E,  The  lift  of  the  air-valve  D  is  also  adjustable  in 
its  lift  by  the  lock-nuts  at  I  on  the  spindle  C,  which  is  guided  by 
a  cross-bar  near  the  top  of  the  cage.  The  main  air  inlet  is  at  H 
with  a  diffusion  inlet  at  G  regulated  by  a  plug-cock.  The  gaso- 


94 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


line  is  thoroughly  atomized  by  the  action  of  the  two  valves  E 
and  D,  and  meeting  the  fresh  air  through  G  is  vaporized  in  its 
passage  through  the  pipe  and  inlet-valve  chamber. 

In  Fig.  33  is  illustrated  a  heat  vaporizer  used  on  the  "Cap- 
itaine"  motor  in  which  the  inlet  nozzle  V  is  ribbed  on  the 
outside  and  is  enclosed  in  a  chamber  through  which  the  exhaust 
passes. 

Gasoline  and  air  are  drawn  into  the  nozzle  regulated  by  the 
small  valve,  and  additional  air  for  the  explosive  mixture  is  drawn 


FIG.  32. — Gasoline  atomizer  and  vaporizer. 

in  by  the  piston  through  the  large  valve.  By  this  arrangement  the 
gasoline  is  broken  up  and  thrown  against  the  hot  walls  of  the 
nozzle  by  the  air  drawn  through  the  small  air  inlet. 

The  atomizing  vaporizer  (Fig.  34)  is  conveniently  placed  on 
the  side  of  a  cylinder  with  the  exhaust-valve  G  spindle  in  line 
with  the  exhaust  push-rod. 

The  gasoline  is  injected  through  the  small  valve  C,  opened 
by  the  lift  of  the  air-valve  D.  The  inlet-valve  E  makes  a  closure 


CARBURETERS 


95 


of  the  vaporizing  chamber  during  the  compression  and  exhaust- 
stroke  of  the  piston. 

The  constant-level  feed  atomizer  (Fig.  35)  is  of  French  origin 
and  used  on  the  "Abeille"  au- 
tomobile motor.  It  regulates  its 
feed  from  a  higher-level  reservoir 
or  tank,  by  means  of  a  float  B 
in  the  receiver  A,  which,  by  its 
floating  position,  opens  a  small 
conical  valve  on  the  lower  end  of 
the  spindle  C  through  the  opera- 
tion of  the  lever  D.  The  spindle 


FIG.  33. — Heat  vaporizer. 


C  being  a  counterpoise  weight  to  close  the  inlet-valve  when  the 

float  B  exceeds  the  proper  height. 

The  level  of  the  gasoline  in  the  receiver  is  adjusted  to  stand 

just   below   the  top  of 
the  jet  nozzle  at  E. 

An  inlet  for  air  to 
meet  the  gasoline  jet 
J  at  the  neck  of  the 
double  cone  H  is  shown 
in  the  circular  opening 
in  the  oval  flange.  The 
suction  of  the  piston 
during  the  charging 
stroke  jets  the  gasoline 
against  the  perforated 
cone  with  the  annular 
jet  of  air  from  below, 
where  it  is  met  by  the 
diluting  air  from  the 
holes  in  the  cone.  The 
cap  L  has  holes  corre- 
sponding with  the  holes 
on  the  inner  section  for 
adjusting  the  area  of  the 

diluting  air  inlet  by  rotation  on  its  screw  thread.   The  jet  nozzle  can 

be  quickly  removed,  cleaned,  or  adjusted  by  removing  the  plug  F. 


FIG.  34. — Atomizing  vaporizer. 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  .AND  OIL-ENGINES 


A  vaporizer  having  some  excellent  features  for  perfecting  the 
vapor  and  air  mixture  before  it  enters  the  cylinder  is  detailed  in 
Fig.  36  and  patented  by  Walter  Hay,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

The  gasoline  enters  the  small  annular  chamber  aa  through  the 

pipe  d.  Several  small 
holes  open  from  the  an- 
nular chamber  upon  the 
central  line  of  the  valve 
seat  of  the  inlet  air-valve 
E,  some  of  which  have 
screw  needle-valves  for 
regulating  the  flow  of 
gasoline.  The  inrush  of 
air  when  the  valve  opens 
by  the  draft  of  the  piston 
atomizes  the  inflowing 
gasoline  and  precipitates 
the  atoms  upon  the  deep 
wings  of  a  fan  h  hung 
upon  the  central  spindle 

j.  The  fan  is  set  in  motion  by  the  inrush  of  air,  and  throwing  the 
excess  of  gasoline  against  the  hot  walls  of  the  annular  exhaust- 
chamber  a'/,  produces  a  perfect  mixture  of  vapor  and  air  before 
passing  through  the  second  inlet-valve  A.  The  exhaust  in  passing 
around  the  annular  chamber  also  imparts  heat  to  the  annular 
gasoline  chamber  aa'  and  makes  its  final  exit  through  the  slotted 
apertures  in  the  outer  casing,  as  at  g,  or  may  pass  into  an  exhaust- 
pipe. 

We  illustrate  in  Figs.  37  and  38  two  forms  of  atomizers  or 
mixing  valves  which  have  been  designed  for  use  on  gasoline-en- 
gines. They  take  the  place  of  carbureters,  and,  for  certain  pur- 
poses, users  have  found  them  efficient  and  reliable.  The  construc- 
tion of  these  valves  is  very  simple.  They  have  few  parts,  and 
there  is  no  liability  of  their  proving  troublesome  after  having  been 
used  a  short  while. 

Referring  to  the  sectional  views  it  will  be  seen  that  the  valve 
disk  E  is  held  against  its  seat  by  a  light  spring  M.  The  seat  of 
this  valve  is  wide,  and  the  port  opening  slightly  smaller  in  diam- 


FIG.  35. — Constant-level  atomizer. 


CARBURETERS 


97 


eter  than  the  pipe  connections, 
the  valve  disk  is  of  full  area, 
a  gasoline  inlet  0  tapped  for  } 
gasoline  inlet  0  a  passageway 
through  the  valve  body 
and  is  in  communication 
with  the  main  valve  seat. 
The  opening  of  this  pas- 
sageway K  into  the  valve 
seat   is   controlled  by  a 
small    needle  -  valve    F, 
which  has  an   indicator 
arm  G. 

The  valve  stem  F  has 
a  stuffing-box  II  so  as 
to  enable  it  to  be  well 
packed  to  prevent  leak- 
age of  gasoline. 

In    this   construction 
no    gasoline    is    spilled, 
nor    will   it    accumulate 
in  the  valve  body;   any 
excessive  amount  will  be 
drawn  into  the  vaporiz- 
ing space  between  this  and  the 
nated  by  the  pipe  size  of  the 
sizes  as  follows: 


The  body  of  the  valve  L  below 
At  the  side  of  the  valve  body  is 
inch  pipe  thread.  From  the  side 
of  ample  area  leads  around  and 


FIG.  36.— The  "  Hay  "  vaporizer. 

inlet-valve.     The  sizes  are  desig- 
screw  and  are  rated  for  cylinder 


Diameter  of  Cylinder,  inches  
Size  Pipe  Connection  on  Genera- 
tor Valve,  'inches   

2 

4- 

3i 

SL 

^ 
1 

Si 
1^ 

7 
1* 

8 
2 

10 
2* 

12 

2* 

14 

Tiie  above  proportions  are  based  on  a  piston  travel  of  not  more 
than  600  feet  per  minute.  For  higher  speeds  than  this  the  genera- 
tor valve  should  be  the  next  size  larger  than  shown  above. 

The  valves  are  made  by  the  Lunkenheimer  Company,  Cincin- 
nati, 0. 

The   plan   and  section  of  a"  noiseless  automatic  carbureter  is 


98  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

shown  in  Fig.  39.  It  is  well  suited  for  charging  multiple-cylinder 
motors  and  is  very  uniform  in  its  supply.  The  left-hand  section  of 
the  cut  shows  the  plan  of  the  float  tank,  valve,  and  the  wire  gauze 
in  the  air-pipe,  of  which  there  are  sufficient  in  number,  say  nine, 
to  give  a  large  wire  surface  for  fully  evaporating  any  charge  of 
gasoline  for  the  motor  for  which  the  size  of  carbureter  is  adapted. 
Referring  to  section  of  carbureter  as  cut  on  a  line  AB,  with 
position  of  adjusting  screw  shown  at  a.  The  level  of  gasoline 


SECTION  ON&-B. 


FIG.  37. — Angle  atomizer. 


SECTION  ON  A-B. 


FIG.  38. — Vertical  atomizer. 

being  lifted  automatically  by  the  suction  of  the  motor,  the  supply 
is  shown  below  point  of  adjusting  screw,  the  gasoline  being  regu- 
lated by  the  needle-point  on  screw  which  forms  the  spraying  nozzle 
and  the  constant  level  being  maintained  at  all  times  by  the  ball- 
valve  vy  which  has  a  capacity  much  greater  than  outlet  at  needle- 
point, so  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  lower  the 
level  of  gasoline.  And  the  float  acting  as  it  does  on  the  lever  /, 
and  I  resting  as  it  does  squarely  on  the  centre  of  the  ball  and  the 
ball  fitted  in  a  perfect  seat,  the  float  being  hinged  to  lever,  it  will 


CARBURETERS 


99 


be  seen  that  any  vibration  that  would  cause  the  float  to  shake 
within  the  cup  will  not  disturb  the  ball,  which  will  maintain  a  con- 
stant level  through  any  kind  of  vibration,  making  it  perfectly 
adapted  to  engines  and  motors  for  traction  or  marine  purposes  as 


FIG.  39. — Kingston  carbureter. 

well  as  stationary.     This  carbureter  may  be  used  with  a  throttling 
governor  if  desired. 

In  Figs.  40  and  41  we  illustrate  a  later  design  of  the  Kingston 
carbureter  of  which  Fig.  40  is  an  outside  view  and  Fig.  41  a  section 
showing  the  detailed  parts. 

In  describing  the  principle  and  method  of  throttle  control  in 
this  carbureter  we  will  refer  to  the  vertical  cross  section  showing 
the  entire  workings  of  this  car- 
bureter: J  represents  the  float 
chamber;  F,  the  float;  v  the 
bell-metal  ball-valve  and  valve- 
stem  to  which  the  float  is  rigidly 
connected;  G  the  fuel  connec- 
tion; T  a  trap  at  bottom  of  float 
chamber  to  catch  and  hold  any 
dirt  or  water  that  may  find  its 
way  to  float  chamber;  P  is  a 
i-inch  pipe  plug  which  may  be 

taken  out  for  draining  and  cleaning  the  trap,  for  convenience  this 
plug  may  be   taken  out  and   a  pet-cock  screwed  in  its  place; 


100 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


H  represents  the  air  chamber;  a  the  fuel  needle-point  valve; 
D  the  air-regulating  valve;  d  a  lug  cast  on  air-valve,  used  as 
an  adjustable  stop,  being  provided  with  screw  and  clamp  to  hold 
screw  firmly  after  adjustment  is  made;  e  is  a  lug  on  main  casting 

forming  a  stop  for  d;  this  screw 
adjustment  at  d  is  used  for  ad- 
justing throttle  for  low  speed; 
s  is  a  clamp  having  a  fork  at 
one  end  for  making  a  loose 
connection  with  d,  the  other 
end  forming  a  clamp  with 
screw  tension  for  locking  same 
to  a  after  the  fuel  adjustment 


FIG.  41. — Section  Kingston  carbureter. 


is  made:  L  is  a  lever  for  oper- 
ating a  and  D  together  form- 


ing the  throttle;  t  the  fuel-spraying  nozzle  in  tube  projecting  from 
cavity  shown  around  needle-point  of  a,  this  nozzle  is  placed  in 
apex  of  i;-shaped  orifice  leading  to  the  engine,  also  connection  for 
intake  pipe  to  motor;  I  is  the  air  inlet  to  carbureter;  M,  M  are 
baffle-plates  which  are  thin  semi-disks  or  bridges,  and  closing  one- 
half  the  opening  in  each  case  from  opposite  sides,  and  doing  serv- 
ice as  baffle-plates,  keeping  the  mixture  from  being  forced  back 
out  I  by  reaction  on  back-lash  of  motor  valves,  also  as  a  silencer 
as  they  muffle  the  inrush  of  air;  V  represents  a  conduit  leading 
from  float  chamber  and  terminating  at  t  at  apex  of  r-shaped  orifice 
leading  to  the  motor;  the  flow  of  fuel  through  V  being  controlled 
by  needle- valve  a. 

These  carbureters  are  made  by  Byrne  Kingston  &  Co.,  Kokomo, 
Ind. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  42  and  Section  -Fig.  43,  a  vaporizer  of  the 
constant-level  type  with  a  regulating  device  in  which  the  index  to 
the  gasoline  feed  is  adjusted  by  a  sector  and  worm-screw  which 
cannot  be  displaced  by  jar  or  vibration. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  device  is  very  compact,  practically  all  of 
it  being  contained  in  a  space  but  little  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
ordinary  inlet-pipe.  Gasoline  enters  from  the  supply  through  the 
pipe  m,  filling  the  reservoir  d  and  overflowing  through  the  pas- 
sage g  to  the  pipe  /.  Air  enters  through  the  openings  in  the  cap 


CARBURETERS 


101 


e,  which  serves  to  throttle  the  air  supply.  Passing  around  the 
chamber  d  it  produces  a  draft  which  draws  fuel  from  the  reser- 
voir through  the  nipple  c  and  the  plug- valve  i  which  is  counter- 
bored  at  y.  Passing  onward,  the  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air  leaves 
the  casing  a  through  the  pipe  6,  which  is  threaded  so  that  it  may  be 
connected  to  the  inlet  of  the  engine.  The  vent  h  keeps  the  pres- 
sure constant  within  the  reservoir  and  the  gasoline  may  be  drained 
through  the  cock  k. 

Those  who  have  had  experience  with  gasoline  vaporizers  will 
at  once  recognize  the  good  features  of  this  device,  which  are  the 
location  of  the  gasoline  nozzle  in  the  centre  of  the  air  passage, 
the  location  of  the  fuel-valve  close  to  the  opening  of  the  nozzle 


FIG.  42. — Aldrich  vaporizer. 


FIG.  43.— Section. 


into  the  air  passage  and  the  general  compactness  of  the  entire 
vaporizer.     It  is  manufactured  by  R.  &  W.  T.  Aldrich,  Millville, 

Mass. 

THE    CLUADEL    OIL-CARBURETER 

A  French  design  by  M.  Cluadel  for  carbureting  air  with  kero- 
sene or  the  heavier  oils  by  the  heat  of  the  exhaust. 

The  carbureter  is  composed  of  a  double  heating  chamber  u, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  placed  the  retort  m.  In  the  annular  space 
included  between  the  retort  and  the  outer  walls  of  the  heating 
chamber,  the  exhaust  from  the  motor  circulates,  entering  by  the 


102 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


pipe  k  and  escaping  by  the  pipe  L  The  position  of  the  retort  m 
is  assymmetric  with  regard  to  the  centre  of  the  heating  chamber, 
in  proportion  to  the  supply  and  exhaust-pipes,  k  and  c;  so  that  the 
amount  of  heat  imparted  to  the  retort  may  be  regulated  by  the 
movement  of  the  valve  s  in  Fig.  45. 

With  the  valve  in  the  position  shown,  the  flow  of  heated  gases 
from  the  exhaust  follows  the  course  of  the  arrow  2,  Fig.  46,  being  in 
contact  with  only  a  small  portion  of  the  circumference  of  the  re- 
tort, and  imparting  but  little  heat.  With  the  valve  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  the  current  of  gas,  following  the 
direction  of  arrow  1,  almost  completely  surrounds  the  retort. 

The  difference  between  the  two  passages  is  further  increased  by 
a  very  thin  wall  on  the  right  of  arrow  2,  which  may  be  in  the  form 


FIG.  44. — Plan  and  top  view  of  carbureter. 
Dotted  lines  show  auxiliary  air  intake. 

of  a  screen  or  damper  permitting  an  ingress  of  outside  air;  while  the 
wall  on  the  left  of  arrow  1  is  a  part  of  the  casting  of  considerable 
thickness,  thus  retarding  the  radiation.  The  air-valve  is  operated 
by  the  lever  and  spring  stop,  while  the  cam  lever  T  (Fig.  46)  regu- 
lates and  locks  the  cooling  damper.  By  the  proper  adjustment  of 
these  two  valves,  and  the  diversion  of  the  exhaust,  the  retort  may 
be  maintained  at  any  desired  temperature  up  to  the  maximum 
limit  of  the  exhaust. 

The  retort  is  made  of  drawn  tubing,  which  may  be  formed  with 
an  internal  web  n,  increasing  the  heating  surface  and  breaking  the 


CARBURETERS 


103 


flow  of  the  combustible  contents.  The  retort  is  connected  with  the 
mixing  chamber  y  by  the  tubes  o,  o,  o,  of  such  size  and  form  as  to 
act  in  connection  with  the  web  n  to  break  up  the  various  elements 


FIG.  45. — Vertical  section  of  Cluadel  carbureter  for  heavy  oils. 

A,  Regulator  for  gasoline  supply.  B,  gasoline  reservoir.  F,  Stop-valve  for  oil  supply.  G, 
Oil  reservoir.  P,  Damper  of  main  air  supply.  S,  Damper  of  auxiliary  air  supply.  T,  Locking 
lever  of  air-damper  of  exhaust,  a,  Gasoline  supply,  b,  Gasoline  float,  c.  Gasoline  feed-nipple. 
d,  Button  for  lowering  float,  e,  Independent  oil-supply  valve,  f,  Oil-suoply  pipe,  g.  Oil  float. 
h.  Oil  feed-nipple.  ;',  Stop  and  lever  of  exhaust-pipe  valve.  k,  Supply  pipe  from  exhaust  to 
carbureter.  Z,  Discharge  pipe  of  exhaust,  m,  Retort,  n.  Rib  of  retort,  o,  o.  o,  Mixing  pipes 
from  retort,  p,  Main  air  supply,  r.  Pipe  from  carbureter  to  motor,  s.  Auxiliary  air  supply. 
u,  Heating  chamber  for  retort,  v,  Drain,  x,  Adjusting-screw  of  oil-supply  valve,  y,  Mixing 
chamber.  2,  Air-duct  to  retort. 

within  the  retort  and  to  provide  the  throttling  which  is  essential 
to  automatic  regulation. 

The  mixing  chamber  is  provided  with  three  openings;  one 
for  the  main  air  supply,  p;  one  for  an  auxiliary  air  supply,  s;  and 
one,  r,  for  the  passage  of  the  mixture  to  the  motor.  An  internal 
diaphragm  directs  the  course  of  the  air  admitted  by  p  and  s,  and 
regulates  the  suction  according  to  the  speed  and  other  conditions. 
The  opening  s  is  fitted  with  a  damper  by  which  the  auxiliary  supply 
may  be  regulated  according  to  the  kind  of  oil  used. 

Attached  to  the  mixing  chamber  is  the  float  chamber  B  of  the 
ordinary  gasoline  carbureter,  with  the  float  b,  regulating  the  level 
of  the  gasoline  which  enters  by  the  tube  a,  and  which  is  discharged 
into  the  air  of  the  mixing  chamber  by  the  nipple  c,  on  first  starting 
the  motor. 


104 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


FIG.  46. — Transverse  vertical  section 
through  retort  and  exhaust-pipe. 


The  regulation  of  the  heavy  oil  supply  is  through  the  float  cham- 
ber G,  and  float  g,  the  oil  entering  at  /,  under  the  control  of  the  point 

F.  The  float  g  operates  a  lever, 
which  acts  on  the  upper  end 
of  the  pointed  rod  F,  the  exact 
adjustment  being  made  through 
the  screw  x  and  its  nut.  Be- 
tween the  discharge-nipple  A, 
within  the  retort,  and  the  float 
chamber  G  is  a  spring  valve 
operated  by  the  lever  e,  by 
which  the  passage  of  the  oil 
may  be  controlled. 

A  very  important  detail  of 
the  retort  is  the  plate  w,  which 
connects  it  with  the  oil-float 
chamber,  and  which  is  pierced,  as  shown  by  a  small  opening  2, 
which  admits  the  necessary  amount  of  free  air  in  proximity  to 
the  nipple  h. 

METHODS    OF    STARTING 

In  practical  operation,  the  motor  may  be  started  by  means  of 
the  auxiliary  gasoline-carbureter  on  the  left,  with  a  small  reservoir 
for  fuel,  and  when  well  under  way  and  with  the  exhaust  going, 
the  gasoline  may  be  shut  off  and  the  kerosene  turned  on.  The 
motor  may,  however,  be  started  directly  on  the  oil,  provided  a 
torch  is  first  used  to  heat  the  retort  until  a  flow  is  secured  from 
the  exhaust. 

The  oil  supply  in  the  reservoir  G  is  maintained  at  a  constant 
level  by  means  of  the  float  g  and  its  lever. acting  on  the  valve  F; 
the  rate  of  feed  through  the  nipple  h  is  regulated  by  the  amount 
of  pressure  within  the  retort  m,  which  is  in  turn  dependent  upon 
the  flow  of  the  gases  through  the  contracted  opening  of  the  rib  n  and 
the  indirect  passages  of  the  mixing  tubes  o,  o,  o,  which  serve  to 
alter  the  effect  of  the  motor's  aspiration  and  to  make  it  prolonged 
and  regular  instead  of  intermittent.  At  the  lower  speeds  there  is 
very  little  resistance  to  the  flow  from  the  retort  to  the  mixing 
chamber;  but  as  the  speed  increases  and  the  aspirations  of  the 


CARBURETERS 


105 


K 


motor  become  more  powerful,  the  effect  is  to  throttle  the  gas  in  its 
way  through  the  indirect  passages.     The  result  of  this  apparently - 
contradictory    phenomenon    is  an  automatic  regulation  which  is 
practically  perfect.     Once  set  for  a  given  quality  of  oil,  the  supple- 
mentary air  supply  s,  s,  may  be  left  without  further  attention; 
the  air  duct  z  of  the  retort  remains  unchanged;  and  the  position 
of  the  regulating  valve  i  in  the  exhaust-pipe  as  set  by  the  lever 
and  stop  j  is  also  unchanged.     It  has  been  found  in  practice  that 
the  exhaust  supply-pipe  k  should  be 
placed  as  close  as  possible  to  the  heads 
of  the  cylinders. 

In  Fig.  47  is  illustrated  an  atomiz- 
ing vaporizer  of  the  Generator  Valve 
Co.,  New  York. 

It  has  an  addition  to  the  ordinary 
atomizing  devices,  a  throttle- valve 
with  spindle  and  handle  L,  to  regu- 
late the  charge,  and  ready  to  connect 
with  any  two-cycle  motor  by  the  screw 
at  I. 

The  air  inlet  is  at  H,  gasoline  in- 
let at  G.  The  needle- valve  opens  on 
the  air-valve  seat  and  carries  a  milled  index-head  E,  held  as  set 
by  the  spring  pointer  F.  The  air  inlet-valve  is  closed  lightly  by 
the  spring  C,  and  its  lift  adjusted  by  the  milled  head-screw  K. 
The  throttle- valve  is  held  in  any  set  position  by  pressure  of  a  spring 
on  the  milled  disk  on  its  spindle. 


FIG.  47. — Atomizing  vaporizer. 


CHAPTER  X 

CYLINDER   CAPACITY   OF   GAS   AND    GASOLINE-ENGINES 

THE  cylinder  volume  of  gas  and  gasoline-engines  seems  to  be 
as  variable  with  the  different  builders  as  it  is  with  steam-engines 
in  its  relation  to  the  indicated  power. 

The  proportion  of  diameter  to  stroke  varies  from  equal  meas- 
ures up  to  38  per  cent,  greater  stroke  than  the  measure  of  the 
cylinder  diameter.  The  extreme  volumes  of  cylinder  capacity 
(measured  by  the  stroke)  varies  from  28  to  56  cubic  inches  for  a 
1  horse-power  engine  and  from  48  to  98  cubic  inches  for  a  2 
horse-power  engine;  for  a  3  horse-power  engine  from  77  to  142 
cubic  inches,  while  for  a  6  horse-power  engine  it  ranges  from  182 
to  385  cubic  inches.  This  disparity  in  sizes  for  equal  indicated 
power  may  be  caused  by  the  different  kinds  of  gas  and  its  air 
mixtures  under  which  the  trials  for  indicated  power  may  have  been 
made,  or  it  may  be  partly  due  to  relative  clearance  and  facility  for 
exploding  the  charge  at  some  fixed  time. 

It  may  be  readily  seen  from  inspection  of  the  heat  value  of 
different  kinds  of  gas — varying  as  they  do  from  about  950  heat 
units  per  cubic  foot  for  the  highest  illuminating  gas  to  from  185 
to  66  heat  units  in  the  different  qualities  of  producer-gas — that 
large  variations  in  effective  power  will  result  from  a  given-sized 
cylinder.  It  will  also  be  plainly  seen  that  with  the  extreme  dilu- 
tion of  producer-gas  with  the  neutral  elements  that  produce  no 
heat  effect,  that  no  combination  with  air  that  also  contains  80 
per  cent,  of  non-combustible  element  can  produce  even  a  modicum 
of  power  in  the  same-sized  cylinder  as  is  used  for  a  high-power  gas. 

In  view  of  this  it  seems  necessary  to  build  explosive  engines 
with  cylinder  capacities  due  to  the  heat-unit  power  of  the  com- 
bustible intended  to  be  used,  as  well  as  to  the  method  of  its  appli- 
cation. 

In  the  following  tables  are  given  the  indicated  and  actual 
106 


CYLINDER  CAPACITY  OF   GAS  AND  GASOLINE-ENGINES      107 


power,  revolutions,   and  size  of  cylinder  and  stroke  of  various 
styles  of  gas-engines  for  comparison: 


TABLE  XIII. 


THE  NASH. 

THE  SINTZ. 

Actual 
Horse- 
Power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
Minute. 

Diameter 
of 
Cylinder. 
Inch. 

3 

3£ 
4 
5 
5£ 

61 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

Horse- 
Power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
Minute. 

Diameter 
of 
Cylinder. 
Inch 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

350 
350 
325 
300 
300 
300 
280 

4 
4 

41 
5 
61 

71 

1.  . 

2  
3  
4  
6  
8  
10  
15  

425 
400 
375 
350 
300 
270 
250 
225 

3| 
4 
4| 
5 
51 
6i 
8 
9 

31 

5 

6 
6 

7 
8 
9 

1 

2  
3  
4  
5 

TABLE  XIV. 


STAR. 


DIMENSION  TABLE,  PAGE  110. 


Actual 
Horse- 
Power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
Minute. 

Diameter 
of 
Cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

Horse- 
Power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
Minute. 

Diameter 
of 
Cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

2..  . 
3  

250 
240 

*i 

5 

6 

6 

2  
3  

350 
350 

4£ 

5 

51 

6J 

4  
6  

8  
10 

220 
220 
180 
180 

5£ 
61 

8 

10 
12 
13 
14 

4|  

10  !  '. 
13 

325 
320 
300 
275 

6 

7 
8 
9 

1 

10 
111 

17  

250 

10 

121 

TABLE  XV. — RATING  OF  SOME   ENGLISH  ENGINES. 


Indicated 
Horse-Power. 

Revolutions. 

Diameter. 
Inches. 

Stroke. 
Inches. 

Name. 

9    

164 

6 

16 

Crossley. 

9  

164 

8 

16 

« 

14  

200 

7 

15 

ci 

16  

160 

H| 

20 

Burt's  Otto. 

18 

180 

91 

16 

K                   11 

19 

160 

9i 

18 

Crossley. 

20.    ... 

184 

92 

17 

Stockport. 

20  

164 

12 

18 

Wells. 

24  

180 

10 

18 

Barker's  Otto. 

30 

170 

12 

20 

it          tt 

33     . 

210 

17 

2H 

Crossley 

40.  ..    . 

160 

18 

24 

Tangye. 

108  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

The  apparent  discrepancies  in  the  above  table  of  cylinder, 
capacities,  as  to  their  size  when  compared  with  their  indicated 
power,  are  not  really  so  great  as  may  be  noticed  at  first  inspec- 
tion; for  the  mean  pressure  varies  very  much  with  the  various 
fuels,  as  well  also  from  the  relative  variation  of  the  proportion 
between  the  volume  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  the  volume 
swept  by  the  piston.  The  difference  in  speed  between  the  various 
engines  noted  also  complicates  the  direct  comparison  for  cylinder 
capacities. 

The  whole  subject  of  size  and  weight  of  explosive  engines  for 
stated  powers  appears  to  be  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  which 
by  continued  experiment  and  experience  may  be  brought  into  an 
approximate  uniformity  in  practice  for  specified  values  of  fuel  and 
speed. 

CYLINDER  DIAMETER,  STROKE,  AND  MOTOR  PARTS 

The  practice  in  cylinder  proportions  in  the  United  States  ap- 
pears to  vary  considerably  among  engine  builders,  from  equal 
diameter  and  stroke  to  from  1J  to  1J  their  diameter  for  length 
of  stroke,  while  in  Europe  the  smaller-sized  engines  have  strokes 
of  more  than  twice  the  diameter,  grading  to  1J  times  in  the  larger 
engines. 

Like  the  steam-engine  cylinder  proportions,  there  seems  to 
be  no  settled  opinion  as  to  the  best  ratio,  except  that  high  speed 
indicates  short  stroke.  The  longer  stroke  European  engines  are 
quoted  as  low  speed  and  run  at  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  the 
speed  of  most  American  engines  of  the  same  caliber. 

In  the  following  table  of  gas  and  gasoline-engine  dimensions 
we  have  figured  the  speed  at  about  the  maximum  rate  arid  have 
endeavored  to  show  about  the  average  •  practice  with  builders  of 
four-cycle  engines  in  the  United  States  for  ordinary  power  use. 

The  table  has  been  computed  for  convenient  measurement  for 
amateur  use  and  may  not  meet  the  exact  and  decimal  values  for 
expert  designers. 

In  assigning  these  values  a  consideration  of  60  pounds  M.E.P., 
with  a  clearance  of  from  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  the  piston  stroke, 
has  been  made  for  the  combustion  chamber. 

The  tabulated  horse-power  has  been  computed  on  the  basis 


CYLINDER  CAPACITY  OF   GAS  AND  GASOLINE-ENGINES      109 

of  the  M.E.P.  of  60  pounds  per  square  inch  with  an  adiabatic  com- 

39 
pression  of  TTJT:  of  the  total  volume  and  a  mean   back-pressure 

from  the  compression  stroke  of  26  pounds  per  square  inch,  which 
is  deducted  from  the  mean  of  the  explosive-pressure  stroke  of  89 
pounds  per  square  inch;  which  being  63  pounds,  from  which  a 
deduction  of  3  pounds  is  made  for  losses  from  leakage,  leaves  a 
net  mean  pressure  of  60  pounds. 

Then    the   cylinder   area  X  mean   explosive-pressure  —  mean 
compression  pressure  X  impulse  stroke  travel  in  feet  per  minute 
and  product  divided  by  33,000  =  indicated  horse-power. 
Ax  M.E.P.  x  S 
33,000 

To  obtain  the  value  of  S,  multiply  the  stroke  in  feet  or  decimals 
of  a  foot  by  one-half  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute,  which 
is  the  impulse  travel  of  the  piston  per  minute.  If  misfires  are 
made  they  should  be  deducted  from  the  half  number  of  revolu- 
tions in  practice. 

As  an  example  of  an  8  X  10  four-cycle  engine  at  300  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  we  have  area  of  cylinder  50.26  square  inches 

10      300 
and  S  =  T^  X  —  ^-  =  125  feet   piston  travel   per   minute.     Then 

.50.26X60X125 

=11.41  I.H.P.,  which  we  have  rated  as  10  actual 


horse-power  in  the  table.  In  the  smaller  engines  the  difference 
between  indicated  and  actual  horse-power  increases  as  the  size 
diminishes. 

The  thicknesses  of  cylinder  wall,  water-jacket,  and  water  space 
have  been  assigned  with  due  regard  for  overcharged  explosions 
and  the  possibilities  in  core-making  for  the  water  space;  they  are 
often  made  thicker  than  given  in  the  table. 

The  length  of  the  connecting  rod  from  centre  to  centre  is  made 
from  medium  practice,  or  about  2{  times  the  stroke  with  the  piston- 
pin  at  the  centre  of  the  piston. 

The  figured  dimensions  of  piston-pins  of  the  same  bearing 
length  as  the  crank-pin,  as  also  the  crank-pins  and  shaft,  are  de- 
rived approximately  from  formulas  which  we  find  variable  with 


110 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


different  writers,  as  well  as  variable  in  size  by  different  builders 
of  explosive  motors.  The  dimensions  in  the  table  are  a  medium 
suitable  to  a  clearance  ratio  of  3  to  3.5. 


APPROXIMATE  DIMENSIONS  OF  FOUR-CYCLE  MOTOR  PARTS. 

For  M.E.P.  60  Ibs.    Clearance,  30  to  33  per  cent.     Compression,  50  to  60  Ibs. 
Explosive  Pressure,  160  to  200  Ibs. 

TABLE  XVI. 


2. 
3 

74 
10 
13 
17 
22 
30 
43 
57 


500 
450 

425 
400 
350 
350 
350 
325 
320 
300 
275 
250 
200 
175 
160 
150 


linder 
meter. 


Ins. 


2* 


Ins. 

4" 

4f 

52 
51 

V 


10 

HI 

121 

15 

17| 

20 


JlfJ  1 

g'll! 

V   MTT   K- 


Ins. 


Ins.  Ins. 


Ribs 


Ins. 

Ribs 

Ribs 

or 


li 


1| 


_ 

Ji 


Ins. 


101 

HI 

12 

141 

17 

20 

22i 

251 

281 

34 

455 
50 


Ins. 

A 


Ins. 


as 


Ins. 


Ins. 


1 

11  l 


i! 


gth 
ourn 


Ins. 
1 

H 

ii 

2 

2.1 

21 

3 

3 

44 


9\ 


~^ 

£  ? 

K 


Ins. 

13 

15 


Lbs. 
66 
133 


200 
270 
475 
525 
575 
800 
900 
1130 
SOI  1500 
64  2350 
66  3600 
72  6000 
82  9500 
9610500 


Ins.  Ins 


1*  If 
1|  2 
2  I  21 
2i  2| 
2i|  3 
3 
3} 


The  diameters  and  weights  of  fly-wheels  vary  to  a  considerable 
extent  among  engines  by  different  builders  to  adapt  them  to  special 
service  where  the  steadiness  of  speed  is  a  special  factor  of  design. 

For  electric-lighting  purposes,  either-  or  both  diameter  and 
weight  of  the  fly-wheels  may  be  increased  above  the  tabulated  fig- 
ures, which  have  been  computed  for  ordinary  power  service. 

The  sizes  of  the  inlet  and  exhaust-valves  have  been  figured 
for  a  free  inlet  and  discharge  at  the  maximum  speed  in  the  second 
column  of  the  table.  For  higher  speeds  of  special  motors  the 
valve  area  should  be  somewhat  increased. 

Of  explosive  motors  of  the  larger  units  now  in  the  market,  we 
detail  in  the  following  table  some  of  their  most  salient  features 


CYLINDER  CAPACITY  OF  GAS  AND   GASOLINE-ENGINES      HI 

as  a  study  of  the  progress  of  this  class  of  prime  movers  for  large 
power  instalments: 


TABLE  XVII. 


Weight. 

» 

1 

rfil 

1 

| 

fe 

System 

Type 

M 

d.Src 

OJX! 

Builders. 

d 

j3 
o 

fe 

PH 

of 

of 

fii 

^JS| 

s 

C 

1—  1 

^ 

E 

8 

Governing 

Engine. 

c"3^ 

C.S£ 

I* 

i?'SH 

* 

1 

4) 

r* 

. 

JS 

s 

'&     L 

^l-H 

s 

1 

tf 

PQ 

6 

13. 

1 

Strut  hers.  Wells 

&  Co.  (Warren  V  21 

24 

180 

300 

20 

Throttling. 

Ver.  2-cyl.,  4-cy. 

75,000 

250 

12,000 

National    Meter 
Co.  (Nash)  .  .  . 

13.5 

16 

225 

125 

19 

Hit  or  miss. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  c-4y. 

28,500 

99o     f3,600 
(2,400 

The    Bessemer 

Gas  Eng.  Co.. 

13.5 

20 

180 

100 

14 

Throttling. 

Hor.  2-cyl.,  2-cy. 

23,000 

230 

5,800 

Marinette  Iron 

Wks(Walrath)  14 
TheAlbergerCo.|l7 

14 
19 

250 
200 

125 
125 

23 

21 

Throttling. 
Auto  cut-off. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4-cy. 
Hor.  2-cyl.,  4-cy. 

23,000 
25,000 

184 
200 

6,600 
7,000 

Lazier  Gas  Eng. 
Co  

15 

21 

160 

50 

20 

Hit  or  miss. 

Hor.  1-cyl.,  4-cy. 

14,000 

280      4,000 

National    Meter 

Co.  (Nash)...  . 

9 

11 

270 

50 

22 

Hit  or  miss. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4-cy. 

11,000 

220 

3,600 

Westinghouse 
Machine  Co.    . 

18 

22 

200 

300 

21 

Throttling. 

Ver,  3-cyl.,  4-cy. 

95,000 

316 

8,600 

W  estinghouse 
Machine  Co  ... 

8 

10 

325 

38 

21 

Throttling. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4-cy. 

10,500 

276 

j  1,750 
j  1,150 

Still  larger  units  and  installations  are  built  and  in  use  in  Europe 
and  in  the  United  States,  for  the  use  of  blast-furnace  gas.  The 
Cockerill  type  is  now  built  by  the  Wellman-Seaver-Morgan  Com- 
pany, Cleveland,  0.,  with  single-acting  cylinders,  for  blast-furnace 
gas,  up  to  600  brake  horse-power,  and  double-acting  up  to  1,200 
horse-power.  By  doubling  up  these  units  any  desired  power  may 
be  obtained  in  a  single  installation. 

The  double-acting  Nurnberg  engine  is  now  being  built  by  the 
Allis-Chalmers  Company,  with  cylinders  of  fifty-nine  inches  in 
diameter;  with  duplex  tandem  double-acting  cylinders,  in  units 
up  to  1,800  horse  power.  In  Germany,  blast-furnace  gas-engines 
are  in  use  up  to  about  2,000  horse-power,  in  unit  combinations  of 
double-acting  cylinders  of  forty-one  inches  diameter  by  four  and 
one-quarter  feet  stroke.  The  low-explosive  pressure  of  blast-fur- 
nace gas  has  greatly  favored  large  cylinder  dimensions,  and  thus 
given  an  impulse  to  the  building  of  large  power-motors  with  the 
least  number  of  individual  units. 


CHAPTER    XI 


GOVERNORS    AND   VALVE    GEAR 

THE  regulation  of  the  speed  of  explosive  engines  has  an  im- 
portant bearing  upon  their  usefulness  and  freedom  from  constant 

personal  attention.  By 
experience  from  trials 
during  the  few  years  of 
the  growth  of  the  new 
motor,  much  progress 
has  been  made  in  per- 
fecting the  details  of 
this  important  adjunct  of 
safety  and  uniformity  in 
speed  regulation  through 
the  action  of  a  governor. 
There  are  four  principal 
methods  in  use  for  con- 
trolling the  speed,  viz.: 
(1)  By  graduating  the 
supply  of  the  hydrocar- 
bon element;  (2)  by  com- 
pletely cutting  off  the 
supply  during  one  or 
more  revolutions  of  the 
crank;  (3)  by  holding  the 
exhaust- valve  open  or 
closed  during  one  or 
more  strokes ;  (4)  in  elec- 
tric ignition  by  arrest- 
ing the  operation  of  the 
sparking  device. 


FIG.  48. — The  Robey  governor. 


To  vary  the  quantity  of  the  hydrocarbon  fuel  by  the  action  of 
the  governor  is  claimed  to  be  the  most  economical  as  well  as  the 
112 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR 


113 


most  satisfactory  method  in  use,  if  the  variation  in  the  work  of 
the  engine  does  not  carry  the  charge  beyond  the  limit  of  combus- 
tion; otherwise  the  second  method  seems  to  give  the  best  results. 
In  Figs.  48  and  49  are  two  elevations  of  the  centrifugal  ball- 
governor,  as  used  on  the  Robey  and  other  engines  in  Europe, 


FIG.  49. — The  Robey  governor. 

and  adopted  with  many  variations  on  a  number  of  American  en- 
gines. In  this  type  the  bell-crank  arm  of  the  governor,  by  its 
centrifugal  action,  raises  or  depresses  a  yoke  and  sleeve  which 
operates  a  bell-crank  lever  with  a  forked  end  astride  a  rotating 
disk  which  rides  on  the  cam  of  the  secondary  shaft.  The  disk 
has  a  lateral  motion  on  the  end  of  the  valve  lever,  so  that  the 


114 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


action  of  the  governor  rides  the  disk  on  to  or  off  the  cam,  and 
thus  makes  a  hit-or-miss  stroke  of  the  inlet- valve. 

The  centrifugal  governor  (Fig.  50)  is  another  application  of 
the  hit-or-miss  principle,  by  the  use  of  a  pick-blade  operated 
from  the  governor  by  a  balanced  bell-crank  and  connecting  rod. 
The  cut  fully  explains  the  detail  of  its  construction  and  opera- 
tion, by  which  an  abnormal  speed  of  the  governor  pulls  the  pick- 


FIG.  50. — The  pick-blade  governor. 

blade  away  from  the  gas-valve  spindle.  In  some  forms  graduated 
notches  are  made  on  the  pick-blade  or  spindle-blade,  so  that  in 
action  the  governor  gives  a  varying  charge  within  certain  limits 
and  a  mischarge  when  the  speed  is  beyond  the  limitation. 

The  inertia  governor  used  on  the  Crossley  engine  in  England, 
and  with  many  modifications  in  use  on  American  engines,  is  illus- 
trated with  plan  and  elevation  in  Figs.  51  and  52,  in  which  A  is 
the  cam  shaft,  B  the  cam,  C  the  roller,  D  the  lever,  H  the  lever- 


GOVERNORS  AND   VALVE  GEAR 


115 


pin,  L  the  spring  to  hold  the  roller  C  to  the  cam,  J  the  governor 
weight,  K  the  adjusting  spring,  G  the  pick-blade,  and  F  the  valve 
stem. 

In  the  action  of  this  governor  the  initial  line  of  motion  of  the 


FIG.  51. — Inertia  governor,  plan.     "Crossley." 

ball  J,  in  regard  to  its  centre  of  motion  H,  is  shown  by  the  dotted 
curved  line.  By  the  sudden  movement  of  its  pivoted  centre  L, 
the  ball  is  retarded  in  its  motion  by  the  regulating  spring  K,  which 


FIG.  52. — Inertia  governor,  elevation.     "Crossley." 

tends  to  throw  the  pick-blade  G  off  the  shoulder  of  the  valve 
stem  F. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  inertia  of  the  vibrating  ball 


116 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


will  vary  as  the  speed  of  vibration,  so  that  by  carefully  adjusting 
by  the  spring  K,  the  action  of  the  ball  will  vary  the  disengagement 


W 

FIG.  53.— The  vibrating  governor,  elevation.     "  Stockport." 

of  the  pick-blade  to  correspond  with  the  over-speed  of  the  engine, 
and  make  an  entire  miss  at  the  limit  of  its  variation.  The  air- 
valve  may  also  be  operated  by  the  spud  E. 

Another  form  of  governor,  involving  the  same  principles  of 
inertia  as  the  last  one,  is  used  on  the  Stockport  engine  in  England, 
and  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  53,  54,  and  55.  It  consists  of  a  weight 
A,  balanced  on  the  vibrating  arm  B.  A  groove  around  the  weight 

operates  a  bell-crank,  to  which 
the  pick-blade  is  attached.  The 
balance  spring  is  adjustable  for 
regulating  the  position  of  the 
pick-blade  and  its  contact  with 
the  valve  spindle.  By  the  va- 
riation in  overcoming  the  in- 
FIG.  54.-The  vibrating  governor,  plan.  ertia  f  ^  ^  b  ^ 

"Stockport.  .,,.«.  ., 

spring  with  different  vibrating 

speeds  in  the  lever,  the  disengagement  of  the  pick-blade  with  the 
spindle-blade  is  varied  or  a  miss-stroke  made. 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR  117 

The  pendulum  governor  (Fig.  56)  is  also  an  inertia  governor 
in  the  principle  on  which  it  operates.  It  is  attached  to  the  exhaust- 
valve  push-rod,  and  vibrates  horizontally  with  the  rod.  The 
weight  or  ball  has  an  extension  or  neck,  with  a  pivoted  eye,  a  yoke, 
and  a  vertical  lug.  The  eye  is  pivoted  in  the  box,  and  the  yoke 
embraces  the  push-blade  stem,  which  is  also  pivoted  horizontally 
with  the  eye  in  the  box  or  frame.  The  lug  bears  on  an  adjusting 
spring,  which  is  set  up  by  a  screw  so  as  to  limit  the  swing  of  the 
ball  to  the  normal  speed  of  the  engine,  so  that  when  the  speed  rises 
above  the  normal  the  inertia  of  the  ball  holds  it  back  in  its  vibra- 
tion and  lifts  the  push-blade  out  of  contact  with  the  valve  stem. 

In  some  engines  the  position  of  the  ball  is  reversed,  and  it  stands 


FIG.  55. — End  view,  elevation.  FIG.  56. — The  pendulum 

' '  Stockport . ' '  governor. 

above  the  valve  push-rod  on  a  finger  and  is  made  adjustable  in  its 
length  of  oscillation  by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum. 

Several  modifications  of  the  governors  here  described  are  in 
use,  devised  on  the  principles  of  inertia  as  illustrated  in  Figs. 
50,  53,  and  56. 

Apart  from  the  ordinary  methods  of  operating  the  valves  of 
explosive  motors  by  reducing  spur  gear  and  the  reducing  screw 
gear  for  driving  a  cam-shaft  for  four-cycle  engines,  we  illustrate 
in  Fig.  57  and  Fig.  58  two  very  simple  methods  of  operating 
the  charging  or  exhaust-valve  by  the  direct  action  of  a  push-rod 
from  an  eccentric  on  the  main  shaft. 

In  Fig.  57  the  vertical  section  shows  the  form  of  the  cam 
on  the  central  thread  of  a  twro-thread  worm  on  the  main  shaft 
with  the  push-rod  and  valve.  The  horizontal  diagram  shows 
the  worm  and  intermittent  ratchet-wheel  pivoted  in  the  fork  of 


118 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


the  push-rod.    At  every  other  revolution  of  the  shaft  the  cam 
section  of  the  worm  falls  into  a  shallow  notch  of  the  ratchet  and 


FIG.  57. — The  worm  cam  push-rod. 

thus  gives  a  push  stroke  of  the  valve  at  every  other  revolution 
of  the  shaft. 

Fig.  58  illustrates  another  form  of  ratchet  push-rod.  In  this 
device  the  ratchet  is  mounted  on  a  friction-pin  which  may  be 
adjusted  by  a  thumb-nut  and  soft  washer  so  as  not  to  turn  back- 


FIG.  58.— The  ratchet  push-rod. 

ward,  yet  may  easily  be  rotated  forward  by  the  motion  of  the 
cam-moved  push-rod.    The  upper  figure  shows  the  tooth  of  the 


GOVERNORS   AND  VALVE  GEAR 


119 


push-rod  on  the  shallow  notch  and  missing  contact  with  the  valve 
spindle;  at  the  next  revolution  of  the  shaft  the  tooth  catches  the 
deep  notch  and  makes  contact  with  the  valve  spindle.  The  throw 
of  the  eccentric  should  be  slightly  greater  than  the  distance  be- 
tween two  consecutive  teeth  in  the  ratchet. 

A  governor  of  the  inertia  or  ball  type  can  be  attached  to  the 
push-rod  with  a  step  contact  on  the  valve  spindle,  making  a  very 
simple  valve  movement  and  regulation. 

The  ring- valve  gear  (Fig.  59)  is  another  way  of  operating  the 
exhaust  push-rod  of  a  four-cycle  engine  directly  from  a  cam  on 
the  main  shaft.  The  inner-ring  gear  is  swept  around  within  the 
outer  fixed  gear,  skipping  by  one  tooth  at  each  revolution  of  the 
engine-shaft. 

The  outer  stationary  ring  has  twice  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 


FIG.  59. — Ring  valve  gear. 


FIG.  60. — Double-grooved 
cam. 


ring  gear,  plus  a  hunting  tooth,  which  makes  a  contact  of  a  ring- 
gear  tooth  with  the  exhaust-valve  rod  at  every  other  revolution. 

A  double-grooved  eccentric  (Fig.  60)  is  another  method  of 
operating  the  exhaust- valve  of  a  four-cycle  engine  by  traversing 
the  push-rod  end,  in  the  grooves  which  cross  each  other  on  one 
side  of  the  cam;  the  groove  on  one  section  of  the  cam  being  enough 
smaller  than  the  groove  on  the  other  section  to  give  the  valve  its 
direct  proper  movement. 

The  pendulum  governor  (Fig.  61)  is  a  simple  and  unique  ar- 
rangement derived  from  the  musical  beat  pendulum.  It  is  hung 
in  a  frame  that  is  attached  to  and  vibrates  with  the  push-rod. 
The  swing  of  the  pendulum  is  adjusted  by  the  distance  of  the  small 
compensating  ball  from  the  centre  of  motion  to  vibrate  synchro- 
nously with  the  push-rod  at  the  required  speed  of  the  engine.  In- 


120 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


creased  speed  increases  the  range  of  vibration  and  releases  the 
curved  pawl  of  the  push-blade  C  and  catches  it  again  at  the  next 
stroke. 

The  differential  cam  (Figs.  62  and  63)  is  much  in  use  on  the 
Otto  engines  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.     It  is  also  called 


FIG.  62.— Differ- 
ential cam. 


FIG.  61. — Pendulum  governor. 


0    B 

FIG.  63.— Differential 
cam  governor. 


the  step  cam  and  is  made  for  from  closed  to  four  grades  of  valve  lift 
with  corresponding  differential  charge.  The  centrifugal  movement 
of  the  governor-balls  slides  the  sleeve  on  the  governor-shaft  and 
through  the  bell-crank  lever  the  step-cam  sleeve  a  on  the  valve-gear 
shaft.  The  disk-roller  b  on  an  arm  of  a  rock-shaft,  rolls  upon  one  or 
the  other  cam  steps  at  c,  thus  varying  the  movement  of  the  inlet- 
valve,  which  is  connected  to  another  arm  of  the  rock-shaft.  The 
tread  of  the  roller  b  is  beveled  and  the  steps  of  the  cam  are  also 
beveled  to  match,  so  that  the  roller  cannot  slip  off  the  cam. 


FIG.  64. — Double  port  inlet  valve. 


FIG.  65. — Valve  gear. 


The  double-port  inlet-valve  (Fig.  64)  is  one  of  the  methods 
of  mixing  the  charge  of  gas  or  gasoline  and  air  directly  into  the 
cylinder.  It  is  made  in  reverse  design  and  with  a  groove  around 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE   GEAR 


121 


one  or  both  the  valve  disk  and  valve  seat,  so  that  the  gas  or  gaso- 
line may  be  injected  through  the  seat  or  from  beneath  the  valve. 

In  Fig.  65  is  shown  a  gas-engine  valve  gear  in  which  both  valves 
are  operated  by  an  inlet  and  an  exhaust-cam  through  a  bent  lever. 
The  form  and  set  of  the 
cams  give  the  proper 
time  action  and  the  set- 
screws  in  the  lever 
adjust  the  lift  of  the 
valves.  E  is  the  inlet- 
valve;  F  the  exhaust- 
valve;  C,  a  double  cam 
with  groove  that  rides 
the  sliding  roller  H  al-  FIG.  66.— "Union"  valve  gear, 

ternately  on  to  the  in- 
let and  exhaust  section.     The  inlet-valve  is  double  seated,  the 
small  flat  disk  covering  the  gas  inlet  from  the  chamber  K,  the  air 
inlet  being  between  the  disks. 

The  "  Union"  valve  gear  (Fig.  66)  has  a  double  push-rod.  The 
one  for  the  charge  is  operated  by  a  cam  on  the  reducing  gear  with  a 
straight  lever  to  bring  the  rod  in  line  with  the  valve.  A  second 
cam  and  lever  for  the  exhaust-rod  changes  the  direction  of  the 
push  by  a  bell-crank. 

The  governing  device  of  the  Ruger  and  Olin  gas  and  gasoline- 
engine  is  of  the  centrifugal  type  and  consists  of  two  weighted 


FIG.  67. — Centrifugal  governor. 

levers  L,  L  (Fig.  67),  which  operate  a  small  bell-crank  and  adjust- 
able spindle  which  rides  the  push-roller  on  to  or  off  the  exhaust- 
cam,  thus  holding  the  exhaust-valve  open  during  excessive  speed. 


CHAPTER  XII 

EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR    IGNITION 

THE  devices  for  firing  the  charges  in  explosive  motors  have  been 
of  many  types  and  designs  through  the  decades  of  their  develop- 
ment; but  the  early  forms  using  outside  flames  and  sliding  ports 
having  been  generally  abandoned  in  favor  of  newer  devices,  we 
have  therefore  omitted  their  illustration  in  this  edition. 

The  successful  operation  of  the  explosive  motor  depends  very 
much  on  the  perfection  of  the  ignition  outfit. 

The  outside  flame  gave  way  to  the  hot-tube  system,  which  we 
represent  but  do  not  recommend,  as  it  seems  to  be  fast  fading  in 
favor  of  the  methods  of  electric  ignition,  which  seem  to  fulfil  all 
the  requirements  for  rapid  and  accurate  ignition,  as  well  as  for  the 
time  adjustment  so  essential  in  high-speed  motors.  For  stationary 
motors  many  manufacturers  still  supply  both  hot-tube  and  electric 
combination  for  gas-engines  and  a  few  for  gasoline-engines. 

HOT-TUBE    IGNITERS 

Much  of  the  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  constant  and  uniform 
explosive  effect  from  the  hot  tubes  used  in  the  early  or  experi- 
mental period  of  the  explosive  motor  was  due  to  the  inability 
to  know  or  see  what  was  the  exact  condition  of  the  progress  of 
combustion  which  was  taking  place  within  the  tube  and  passage 
to  the  combustion  chamber  of  the  cylinder. 

The  want  of  a  durable  and  inexpensive  material  for  the  igni- 
tion-tubes was  an  unsatisfactory  experience  in  the  early  days 
of  the  explosive  motor.  The  use  of  iron,  with  its  uncertain  and 
perishable  nature,  under  the  intermittent  high  pressure  and  at 
the  continual  high  temperature  of  the  Bunsen  burner,  oxidized 
the  tubes  on  the  outside,  making  them  thin,  so  as  to  burst  in  a 
month,  a  week,  or  a  day;  but  only  occasionally  a  tube  would  last 
122 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION  123 

a  month,  although  by  the  use  of  extra-strong  iron  pipe  their  life 
has  somewhat  lengthened.  One  of  the  principal  causes  for  the 
short  life  of  the  iron  tube  may  be  found  in  the  management  of 
the  Bunsen  burner.  A  tube  of  iron  or  any  other  metal  should 
not  be  used  at  a  white  heat  even  at  any  one  spot.  A  uniform 
band  at  a  full  red  heat  all  around  the  central  or  other  part  of  the 
tube  suitable  for  timing  the  ignition  is  the  most  desirable  tem- 
perature for  ignition,  and  for  the  lasting  quality  of  the  tube.  In 
the  construction  and  setting  of  the  Bunsen  burners,  the  point 
of  greatest  heat  in  the  flame  is  too  often  made  to  impinge  directly 
against  the  tube,  heating  it  to  a  white  heat  at  one  spot.  This 
causes  a  change  in  its  molecular  condition,  weakening  it  by  crys- 
tallization and  oxidation,  when,  in  a  short  time,  the  constantly 
repeated  hammering  of  the  explosions  bursts  the  weakened  metal. 

Porcelain  tubes  are  free  from  the  oxidizing  properties  of  metals, 
but  require  considerable  care  in  fastening  them  in  place.  When 
once  properly  set  their  wear  is  imperceptible,  and  if  not  broken  by 
accident,  they  seem  to  stand  the  pressure  well  and  have  a  life  of 
a  year  or  more  at  the  trifling  cost  of  from  20  to;  30  cents  for  the 
sizes  ordinarily  used,  and  in  quantity  at  a  much  lower  price. 

The  usual  lengths  of  porcelain  tubes  as  made  by  the  R.  Thomas 
&  Sons  Co.,  East  Liverpool,  0.,  are  6,  8,  10,  and  12  inches  in  length. 
Pass  &  Seymour,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  also  manufacture  procelain  tubes 
for  explosive  engines. 

The  best  metallic  tubes  now  on  the  market  are  made  from 
the  nickel-alloy  rods  imported  from  the  Westfalisches  Nickelwalzer 
in  Swerte,  Germany.  The  rods  are  furnished  in  about  6-foot 
lengths,  of  sizes  f,  J,  ^-,  f ,  and  ^--inch  diameter.  Herman  Boker 
&  Co.,  101  Duane  Street,  New  York,  are  the  United  States  agents. 
They  keep  the  rods  in  stock,  and  also  furnish  the  finished  tubes  of 
sizes  to  order. 

This  metal  is  now  largely  in  use  by  the  leading  gas-engine 
builders  in  the  United  States,  and  its  lasting  quality  has  been 
amply  tested  by  more  than  a  year's  wear,  and  in  some  cases 
two  years'  wear  for  a  single  tube.  The  only  trouble  or  shorten- 
ing of  the  running  time  of  the  nickel-alloy  tubes  has  been  from 
excessive  heating  and  from  sulphurous  gas,  such  as  the  unpurified 
producer-gas,  and  in  a  few  instances  from  sulphurous  natural  gas, 


124 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


against  which  the  porcelain  tubes  seem  to  be  proof.  The  drilling  of 
the  nickel-alloy  tubes  requires  considerable  care  in  order  to  keep 
the  drill  centred  in  the  rod,  which  is  best  done  by  revolving  the 
rod  in  a  dead-rest  and  feeding  the  drill  by  the  back  centre.  Drills 
should  be  hard  and  kept  sharp.  Use  milk  for  lubricating  the 
drill. 

The  running  out  of  the  drill  will  make  a  thin  side  to  the  tube, 
which  will  be  liable  to  overheat,  and  by  expansion  and  contraction, 
due  to  unequal  temperature,  will  cause  the  thin  side  to  bulge  and 
finally  rupture. 

Platinum  tubes  have  been  used  to  considerable  extent  in  Ger- 
many and  a  few  in  the  United  States;  their  cost  will  probably  send 

them  out  of  use  in  view  of  the  last- 
ing quality  and  cheapness  of  the 
nickel-alloy  and  porcelain  tubes. 

In  Fig.  68  is  shown  one  of  sev- 
eral methods  for  setting  the  por- 
celain tube  in  a  socket  to  be 
screwed  into  the  cylinder. 

The  packing  may  be  asbestos 
washers,  dry  or  moistened  with 
wet  clay. 

The  application  of  a  new  device 
for  hot-tube  ignition  as  used  on  the 
Mietz  &  Weiss  engines,  by  which 
a  short  and  plain  porcelain  or  lava 
tube,  open  at  both  ends  and  set 
between  sockets  with  asbestos  pack- 
ing, has  made  a  marked  progress  in  simplifying  the  care  and 
adjustment  of  tubes  and  time  of  firing.- 

A  reinforcement  of  the  combustion  passage  of  this  device  by 
an  iron-pipe  extension  enlarges  the  power  of  the  small  hot  tube 
by  prolonging  the  burning  of  the  firing  charge,  and  thus  making 
a  short  tube  available  to  meet  the  requirement  for  timing  adjust- 
ment. Such  tubes  should  last  indefinitely;  they  are  cheap,  quickly 
changed,  and  easily  cleaned. 

The  hot-tube  igniter  (Fig.  69)  shows  a  view  of  an  ignition-tube 
used  on  the  Robey  engines,  which  is  adjustable  for  the  position  of 


FIG.  68. — Porcelain-tube  setting. 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


125 


the  igniting  surface  of  the  tube  as  well  as  for  the  position  of  the 
Bunsen  burner,  being  combustion  chamber,  igniter  passage,  and 
Bunsen  burner,  pivoted  to  the  chimney  frame,  which  allows  the 


FIG.  69. — Adjustable-tube  igniter. 


FIG.  70.— Bent-tube 
igniter. 


burner  to  be  tilted  slightly  to  regulate  the  distribution  of  the  flame 
around  the  tube. 

The  set-screw  in  the  chimney  socket  allows  of  a  ready  adjust- 
ment of  the  position  of  the  chimney  and  burner  for  the  time  of 
ignition.  Fig.  70  shows  a  bent-tube  igniter  of  German  model. 

IGNITING   TIMING   VALVES 

The  value  of  an  exact  time  of  ignition  for  producing  uniformity 
of  speed  in  explosive  engines  is  attested  by  the  exhaustive  experi- 
ments of  years  with  the  many  devices  made  for  the  ordinary  tube 
igniters,  and  the  final  recourse  to  electric  ignition.  A  satisfactory 
result  has  been  obtained  in  several  designs  for  operating  a  valve 
at  the  mouth  of  the  ignition-tube  that  admits  the  compressed  charge 
to  the  ignition-tube  at  an  exact  point  in  the  piston-stroke. 


126 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


In  Fig.  71  is  illustrated  a  timing  valve  used  on  the  Robey 
engine,  in  which  A  is  the  combustion  chamber;  B  the  passage  lead- 
ing to  the  hot  tube,  a  double-seated  valve  and  spindle  held  to  its 
front  seat  by  the  spring  D;  E  a  lever  operated  from  the  cam  shaft; 
F  adjusting  spool  with  set-nuts.  In  action  the  valve  is  opened 
at  or  about  the  end  of  the  compression-stroke  and  kept  open  during 
the  exhaust-stroke,  thus  clearing  the  ignition-tube  uniformly  and 
insuring  exact  time  of  ignition. 

In  Fig.  72  is  illustrated  a  combined  timing- valve  igniter  and 
starter,  as  used  on  the  Stockport  engines.  In  this  arrangement 


FIG.  71. — Timing  valve.     "Robey." 

a  double  tube  is  used,  with  an  annular  space  between  the  inner 
tube  and  the  hot  tube,  through  which  the  products  of  combustion 
may  be  blown  out,  followed  by  the  explosive  mixture,  into  the  hot 
tube,  by  compressing  the  timing  valve  and  the  starting  valve  at 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


127 


the  same  moment.  Referring  to  the  cut,  F  is  the  timing  valve, 
operated  by  the  lever  D;  A  the  starting  valve,  with  its  waste  out- 
let at  V;  H  is  a  mantle  to  draw  the  flame  closer  to  the  igniting  tube. 


FIG.  72. — Timing  valve  and  starter.    "  Stockport." 

There  are  many  variations  in  form  and  attachments  for  timing 
valves  in  use  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  They  are  much 
in  favor  for  hot-tube  igniters  for  the  larger  gas-engines. 


IGNITION    DEVICES 

The  ignition  devices  have  been  a  puzzle  to  motor  builders  and 
operators  during  the  decades  of  explosive-motor  development, 
and  so-called  improvements  are  still  in  vogue.  For  gas-engines, 
tube  ignition  has  had  its  day  for  want  of  a  better  way  and  is  still 
in  use  to  a  considerable  extent,  probably  because  it  is  simple  and 
cheap  to  make;  but  the  short  life  of  the  tubes  when  made  of  iron 
has  made  this  material  unreliable  and  the  resort  to  a  nickel  alloy 
and  porcelain  has  bettered  the  condition  which  still  has  its  annoy- 
ances. 

Electric  ignition  has  become  the  most  reliable  and  is  easily 


128  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

managed  and  adjusted  to  meet  the  requirements  for  timing.  In 
its  best  designs  it  has  been  largely  adopted  by  motor  builders, 
and  has  become  a  favorite  with  motor  engineers.  Notwithstanding 
the  troubles  with  early  designs  of  electric  igniters,  from  unseen 
causes  due  to  the  hidden  position  of  their  vital  parts,  the  later  im- 
provements have  brought  their  action  to  almost  a  positive  con- 
dition. 

Of  the  types  of  electric  igniters  in  use,  the  break-contact  or 
hammer  type  involves  the  motion  of  a  spindle  arranged  as  a  rock- 
shaft  with  a  contact-arm  or  hammer  acting  upon  a  stationary 
electrode,  or  a  vibrating  spindle  passing  through  the  walls  of  the 
cylinder  to  make  contact  with  the  same  hammering  force,  or,  as 
in  a  late  improvement,  to  dip  into  a  small  mercury  cistern.  The 
hammer  type,  whether  it  involves  the  action  of  a  spring  to  cause  a 
draw  break-contact  or  by  a  direct-face  contact,  is  subject  to  wear 
that  either  changes  the  adjustment  for  timing  or  prevents  ignition 
by  enlarging  the  contact-faces  to  such  an  extent  as  to  allow  the 
spark  to  occur  before  the  charge  can  pass  in  between  the  faces. 
Many  igniters  of  this  type  are  made  with  broad-faced  hammers, 
which  become  fouled  or  are  so  tightly  faced  by  the  hammer  action 
that  the  spark  passes  before  the  gas  charge  can  reach  the  spark 
between  the  faces,  causing  misfires. 

This  has  been  remedied  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  contact- 
faces  and  rounding  their  surface,  which  serves  to  give  free  access 
of  the  explosive  charge  to  the  spark  at  the  moment  of  break  of 
contact. 

The  single  wire-wound  sparking  coil  and  battery  seems  to  be 
the  most  suitable  means  for  storage  of  electric  current  for  the  in- 
ternal break-contact  igniter. 

The  jump-spark  igniter  is  increasing  in  favor  among  engineers 
and  operators,  owing  to  the  simplicity  and  fixedness  of  its  cylinder 
terminals,  which  places  the  intermittent  action  on  the  outside  of 
the  cylinder,  thereby  allowing  of  ready  observation  and  adjust- 
ment without  stopping  the  motor.  In  the  early  form  of  the  jump- 
spark  igniter  with  both  terminals  passing  through  a  single  insula- 
tion in  the  plug,  the  space  on  the  insulated  face  of  the  plug  was 
made  so  short  that  by  the  fouling  of  the  surface  the  electric  current 
was  short-circuited  and  no  spark  was  produced;  this  gave  much 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION  129 

trouble  from  the  necessity  of  frequently  removing  the  plug  for 
cleaning  the  insulating  surface.  Its  construction  has  been  modi- 
fied so  as  to  increase  the  distance  between  the  terminals  by  an 
extension  of  one  of  the  terminals  from  the  body  of  the  plug,  which 
is  an  improvement,  but  still  defective.  A  later  improvement  has 
been  made  by  extending  the  porcelain  insulator  beyond  the  face 
of  the  plug  from  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  and  extending 
the  opposite  terminal  from  the  face  of  the  plug  with  a  hooked 
end  and  clearing  the  insulator  by  a  quarter  inch,  thus  giving  more 
than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  of  insulating  surface  between  the 
electrodes.  In  some  motors  the  plug  terminal  is  a  single  positive 
electrode,  while  the  negative  electrode  is  fixed  to  the  cylinder-head 
away  from  the  plug,  making  a  greater  distance  over  which  short- 
circuiting  has  to  pass,  but  this  is  a  mistake,  for  the  insulated  part 
of  the  plug  is  the  limitation  of  short-circuit  possibilities. 

The  jump-spark  system  of  ignition  requires  a  secondary  or 
induction-coil,  and,  for  further  efficiency,  a  condenser  with  a  break- 
ing device  operated  from  the  valve-gear  shaft  to  open  the  otherwise 
closed  primary  coil  from  which  the  secondary  or  jump-spark  is 
generated  at  the  moment  of  closure  for  timing  the  spark. 

There  are  two  methods  of  operating  the  jump-spark  ignition; 
in  one  a  magnetic  vibrator  is  employed  which  makes  and  breaks 
the  primary  circuit  many  times  during  the  open  contact  of  the 
time  switch  by  the  secondary  shaft,  during  which  moment  a  series 
of  sparks  is  sent  across  the  terminal  electrodes  in  the  combustion 
chamber,  thus  insuring  ignition  by  repeated  sparking. 

In  the  use  of  the  induction-coil  without  the  vibrator,  but  a 
single  weak  spark  is  produced  at  the  opening  and  a  single  strong 
spark  again  at  the  closing  of  the  timing  switch,  thus  giving  twp 
sparks;  but  the  first  is  not  considered  available,  except  from  a 
more  powerful  induction-coil  than  needed  for  the  vibrating  attach- 
ment. 

The  distance  or  opening  between  the  terminals  of  a  sparking 
plug  is  of  greater  importance  than  generally  considered,  as  much 
hidden  trouble  has  arisen  from  the  form  and  spacing  of  this  impor- 
tant adjunct  in  the  operation  of  explosive  motors. 

For  a  satisfactory  effect  a  four-element  battery  in  series  and 
an  induction-coil  for  sure  ignition  should  give  a  spark  of  maxi- 


130  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

mum  range  from  three-eighths  to  half  an  inch,  for  which  the  ter- 
minals of  the  sparking  plug  should  be  set  at  from  three  to  four 
thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  apart,  or  one-quarter  of  the  extreme 
length  of  the  spark.  The  voltage  for  a  reliable  spark  need  not 
exceed  one  and  a  quarter  volts  in  each  of  a  four-battery  series, 
equal  to  five  volts,  acting  through  an  induction  coil  consisting  of 
a  soft  iron  wire-core  five-eighths  of  an  inch  diameter,  No.  12  gauge, 
insulated  by  a  paper-tube  spool  five  inches  in  length  between  the 
shoulders,  on  which  is  wound  two  layers  of  cotton-covered  copper 
wire,  No.  12,  B.  &  S.  gauge,  well  insulated  with  paper  and  shellac 
varnish.  For  the  secondary  coil,  wind  10  ounces  of  No.  36  B.  &  S. 
gauge  cotton-covered  copper  wire,  shellacing  and  covering  each 
winding  with  a  layer  of  uncallendered  writing  paper.  See  details  of 
induction-coil  further  on. 

A  vibrating  hammer  and  condenser  adds  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  jump-spark  igniter. 

ELECTRIC    IGNITION 

Of  the  two  forms  of  ignition  by  the  electric  spark,  it  has  been 
shown  in  practice  that  both  the  break-spark  and  jump-spark  are 
equally  applicable  and  efficient  for  all  speeds  and  on  single  or 
multiple-cylinder  motors. 

The  jump-spark  method  possesses  the  advantage  of  mechanical 
simplicity  and  the  disadvantage  of  electrical  complication,  while 
the  break-spark  possesses  electrical  simplicity  and  mechanical  com- 
plication. Either  method  can  be  successfully  used  with  any  of 
the  regular  apparatus  for  furnishing  the  electric  current — that  is, 
the  battery,  dynamo,  or  magneto,  or  combination  of  dynamo  or 
magneto  and  battery,  providing  the  complete  apparatus  is  con- 
sistently designed. 

It  is  noticed  that  the  jump-spark  with  battery  is  meeting  with 
probably  the  greater  favor  by  American  manufacturers,  while  the 
European  builders  are  using  the  break-spark  more  extensively  with 
the  alternating-current  magneto,  a  few  with  the  alternating  mag- 
neto and  jump-spark. 

Batteries  possess  the  advantage,  over  other  forms  of  current 
generators,  that  their  maximum  strength  can  be  used  for  starting 
the  engine,  but  the  disadvantage  that,  after  the  engine  is  running, 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION  131 

they  grow  weaker,  until  they  are  exhausted.  Some  kinds  can  be 
recharged  to  advantage;  others  must  be  replaced  with  a  new  bat- 
tery when  exhausted.  The  first  cost  of  batteries  is  low,  and  their 
care  is  fairly  well  understood  by  the  average  operator.  The  facts 
that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  in  any  practicable  way  just  when 
a  battery  will  become  exhausted,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance,  are 
probably  its  most  objectionable  features. 


PRIMARY  IGNITION-BATTERIES 

Much  of  the  success  of  explosive-motor  running  depends  on 
the  efficiency  of  the  ignition  outfit.  The  usual  primary  battery 
and  spark-coil  do  not  always  give  uniform  results. 

The  life  of  the  battery  depends  on  the  chemicals  of  which  it  is 
composed;  or,  in  other  words,  on  its  ampere-hour  capacity;  on  the 
number  and  voltage  of  cells  connected  in  series;  on  the  internal 
resistance  of  the  cells;  on  the  speed  of  the  engine  and  number  of 
hours  which  it  runs  per  day;  on  the  design  of  the  igniting  mechan- 
ism— that  is,  on  whether  or  not  the  sparking  points  make  contact 
every,  or  every  other,  revolution  or  only  at  times  when  fuel  is  ad- 
mitted; on  the  length  of  time  points  are  in  contact;  on  the  resistance 
and  efficiency  of  the  spark-coil;  on  the  insulation  of  the  sparking 
plug,  and  on  the  resistance  of  the  external  circuit. 

By  ampere-hour  capacity  of  a  cell  is  meant  the  quantity  of 
current,  measured  in  amperes,  which  a  cell  will  furnish  for  a  definite 
number  of  hours.  Thus,  a  300-ampere-hour  cell  is  supposed  to  be 
capable  of  furnishing  a  current  of  one  ampere  for  300  continuous 
hours.  Dry  cells  are  not  regularly  given  an  ampere-hour  rating 
for  the  reason  that  individual  cells  vary  greatly  and,  moreover, 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  their  capacity  since,  on  account  of  rapid 
polarization  on  discharge,  it  is  impossible  to  take  a  constant,  con- 
tinuous current  from  them. 

The  dry  battery,  which  is  used  most  extensively,  is  reliable  and 
cleanly,  but  of  short  life,  making  it  expensive  to  maintain.  It 
will  regain  part  of  its  original  strength,  if  allowed  to  rest  after  being 
exhausted;  but,  when  once  exhausted,  a  new  battery  should  be 
considered  a  necessity  of  the  near  future. 

The  storage-battery,  in  connection  with  the  dynamo  or  direct- 


132  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

current  magneto,  forms  an  ignition  system  which  is  almost  ideal 
theoretically,  but  ofttimes  impracticable.  The  storage-battery 
is  of  great  strength  and  is  reliable  until  exhausted,  providing 
proper  care  is  taken  of  it;  but  unless  it  is  given  more  attention  than 
is  generally  given  it  will  prove  a  failure.  For  instance,  if  it  be 
charged  above  a  certain  maximum  rate,  it  will  not  receive  a  nor- 
mal  charge,  and  will  therefore  become  exhausted  earlier  than  it 
would  naturally  do.  If  it  be  discharged  above  a  certain  maxi- 
mum rate,  the  battery  will  not  only  fall  short  on  its  present  charge, 
but  on  all  subsequent  ones;  and  the  time  of  its  ultimate  destruction 
is  hastened  by  the  excessive  discharge  rate.  If  the  battery  has 
been  allowed  to  discharge  after  the  voltage  has  reached  a  certain 
minimum  indicated  by  the  makers  of  the  battery,  generally  about 
one  and  eight-tenths  volts  per  cell,  sulphating  and  its  consequent 
troubles  result.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  automobile  work,  this  last 
abuse  is  probably  responsible  for  the  bad  reputation  that  storage- 
batteries  have  acquired  with  those  experienced  with  them.  The 
storage-battery  should  be  both  charged  and  discharged  through 
ammeters;  and  the  discharge  should  be  watched  with  a  voltmeter, 
not  to  mention  tests  with  hydrometer  for  specific  gravity.  It  is  not 
practicable  to  constantly  observe  these  precautions  for  ignition 
purposes. 

The  dynamo  system  for  ignition,  with  the  speed-governing 
pulley,  is  theoretically  a  fine  ignition  system;  and,  if  operated  by 
one  familiar  with  caring  for  electrical  apparatus,  it  is  a  very  satisfac- 
tory method.  This  system,  however,  possesses  two  very  great  dis- 
advantages: first,  the  dynamo  generates  a  direct  current  of  low 
voltage,  necessitating  care  and  attention  to  be  given  the  dynamo; 
second,  the  dynamo  must  run  at  a  constant  speed,  necessitating 
the  use  of  a  speed-governing  device,  which,  for  the  service  required, 
has  not  proven  altogether  reliable.  The  dynamo  system  will  some- 
times work  perfectly  for  a  very  long  time,  and  then  fail  at  a  time 
most  disastrous  to  its  operator,  without  any  apparent  reason  for 
its  stubbornness. 

The  Edison  Primary  Battery,  formerly  known  as  the  Edison- 
Lalande  battery,  and  exclusively  made  by  the  Edison  Manufact- 
uring Co.,  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Orange,  N.  J.,  is  now  the  lead- 
ing type  for  efficiency  and  lasting  quality  for  primary-battery 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


133 


ignition  for  all  types  of  explosive  motors.     The  batteries  are  made 
in  varying  sizes  to  meet  the  requirements  for  stationary,  portable, 


FIG.  73.— Type  R  R,  1\  x 


FIG.  74.— Type  V,  5|  x  8". 


launch,  and  automobile  services.  In  the  construction  of  these 
batteries,  a  double  zinc  plate  forms  the  negative  element  and  a 
single  plate  of  compressed  oxide  of  copper  forms  the  positive  ele- 
ment of  the  battery.  The  fluid  is  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
which  is  sealed  by  a  layer  of  paraffine  oil  to  prevent  evaporation 
and  creeping  of  the  solution.  The  plates  are  all  suspended  from 
the  cover  of  the  battery,  as  shown  in  Fig.  73, 
which  is  the  largest  (or  R  R)  size  contained 
in  a  porcelain  jar,  of  which  five  cells,  having 
a  capacity  of  300  ampere-hours,  is  the  usual 
outfit  of  a  large  motor  plant. 

For  launch  motors,  the  size  V  is  in  general 
use,  having  a  liquid- tight  cell  of  enamelled  steel, 
which  will  stand  hard  usage,  and  of  which  six 
cells  are  sufficient  for  single  or  double-cylin- 
der two-cycle  or  four-cycle  motors.  On  three 
or  four-cylinder  motors  two  batteries  of  six 
cells  each  are  recommended,  which  have  a  FIG.  75.— Type  Z, 
capacity  of  150  ampere-hours  each  4£x6f". 


134 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


For  automobile  work,  the  size  Z  is  recommended  for  its  com- 
pact size  and  less  liability  to  splashing  from  the  vibration  of  the 
vehicle.  Its  capacity  is  100  ampere-hours,  and  from  6  to  7  cells 
are  used  for  spark-coil  ignition.  The  cell  is  in  a  liquid-tight  enam- 
elled steel  jar. 

These  various  types  of  Edison  primary  batteries  have  the  small- 
est resistance  and  the  most  lasting  capacity  of  any  primary  battery 
in  use. 

The  sparking  coil  used  with  this  form  of  igniter  is  shown  in 
Fig.  76.  It  consists  of  a  bundle  of  iron  wire,  insulated  and  wrapped 
with  insulated  copper  wire.  It  is  a  simpler  device  than  the  induc- 
tion or  Ruhmkorff  coil,  but  will  not  project  a  strong  spark  or  at  a 
great  distance  between  the  electrodes,  as  may  be  obtained  from 
a  Ruhmkorff  coil — the  breaking  device  being  necessary  in  either 
case. 

A  simple  primary  sparking  coil  may  be  made  with  a  core  of 
iron  wire  (No.  16)  ten  inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diameter.  Fasten 


FIG.  76. — The  sparking  coil. 

heads  for  the  spool  on  this,  and  cover  the  core  with  a  few  turns  of 
brown  paper  shellaced  to  make  a  tube.  -Wind  No.  14  single  cotton- 
covered  magnet  wire  on  this  to  a  depth  of  about  f  inch,  insulating 
each  layer  from  the  next  by  a  layer  of  paper.  Give  each  layer  a 
coat  of  shellac  also.  The  coil  is  used  in  series  with  a  battery,  and 
the  spark  is  obtained  when  the  circuit  is  broken.  With  six  or  eight 
strong  cells  a  thick  spark  will  be  given.  This  coil  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  76,  only  instead  of  four  windings  make  six  to  eight  windings. 
The  Edison  spark  coil  (Fig.  77)  is  the  result  of  large  experience 
in  an  effort  to  produce  the  largest  spark  from  the  least  battery 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


135 


current.  Its  short  length  and  large  number  of  wire  turns  make 
the  magnetic  changes  instantaneous,  producing  a  hot  and  power- 
ful spark,  so  necessary  in  high-speed  motors. 

In  Fig.  78  is  illustrated  an  ignition-battery  plant,  in  which 
the  batteries  may  be  from  three  to  four  in  series,  connecting  with 
the  binding  post  p  of  the  primary  winding  of  the  induction-coil 
T  and  continued  through  the  other  binding  post  pl  to  the  breaker 


FIG.  77. — Edison  spark  coil. 


FIG.  78. — Electric  igniter. 


at  k,  which  is  operated  by  a  break-contact  arm  or  cam  on  the 
reducing  gear  or  shaft. 

The  secondary  winding  of  the  induction  coil  is  connected  to 
the  ignition  plug  P  by  the  wires  e,  e,  and  continued  through  separate 
insulating  sleeves,  i,  i,  terminating  in  the  platinum  points  or  pref- 
erably small  knobs,  c,  c.  The  distance  apart  of  these  electrodes 
should  be  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  current.  With  an 
induction-coil  and  battery  of  size  to  produce  a  half-inch  open  jump- 
spark,  one-sixteenth  to  three-thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  should  be 
the  limit.  With  three-fourths  to  one-inch  open  jump-spark  the 
limit  may  be  one-eighth  inch  between  the  electrodes.  The  primary 
circuit  is  made  and  broken  by  the  passage  of  the  contact  piece  k, 
betweeft  the  spring  clips  x,  x,  at  the  moment  required  for  firing  the 
charge. 

DYNAMO    ELECTRIC    IGNITION 

The  permanent  field  dynamo  or  magneto  for  producing  the 
ignition  current  are  in  favor  and  are  made  in  a  variety  of  styles. 
They  have  a  drum  armature,  enclosed  so  as  to  be  proof  against  dirt, 
oil,  and  moisture.  They  can  be  run  by  belt  or  by  contact  with  the 
fly-wheel  with  a  band  of  rubber  stretched  tightly  and  cemented 


136  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

upon  the  dynamo  pulley.     They  are  made  in  several  styles  and  are 
a  favorite  for  marine  and  vehicle  gasoline-engines. 

In  Fig.  80  is  represented  the  horizontal  magneto  as  made  by 
the  Holtzer-Cabot  Electric  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.  It  has  a  belt  or 
wheel-contact  tightening  device  on  a  permanent  platform.  It  is 
their  No.  2,  or  automobile  size,  which  is  also  best  suited  for  launches. 
The  sparking  device  for  which  they  are  specially  designed  is  the 
break  or  wipe  spark.  This  magneto-igniter,  while  having  an  ar- 
mature of  the  drum  type  similar  to  that  used  in  direct-current 
dynamos,  has  permanent  magnet  fields,  so  that  not  only  is  no 
current  wasted  to  energize  them,  but  the  armature  can  be  run  in 
either  direction  and  a  wider  range  of  speed  employed  without 


FIG.  79. — Ignition 

dynamo.  FIG.  80. — Horizontal  magneto. 

danger  of  a  "burn-out,"  while  a  good  hot  spark  can  always  be 
depended  upon. 

The  fields  of  this  machine  are  composed  of  steel,  permanent 
magnets,  and  unless  subject  to  abnormal  conditions  will  retain 
their  strength  indefinitely.  The  fl-shaped  bars  should  never  be 
removed  from  the  fields  without  substituting  an  iron  keeper  across 
their  prongs,  and  this  same  precaution  should  be  taken  before 
attempting  to  withdraw  the  armature. 

Either  carbon  or  woven- wire  brushes  may  be  used;  the  copper 
brush  should  be  soaked  in  oil  from  time  to  time  to  prevent  cutting 
the  commutator.  Carbon  brushes  will  not  cut  the  commutator, 
but  occasionally  may  become  glazed  and  fail  to  give  reliable  con- 
tact; when  this  occurs  their  ends  should  be  filed  off  to  a  new  surface, 
when  they  will  operate  as  well  as  new  brushes. 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


137 


The  Carlisle  &  Finch  Co.,  Cincinnati,  0.,  are  making  a  mag- 
neto dynamo,  the  distinctive  feature  of  which  is  the  method  of 
supporting  it.  It  is  mounted  on  a  strong  pin  on  which  it  rocks. 
This  permits  of  the  belt  being  tightened  if  it  becomes  loose,  and 
an  adjusting  screw  is  provided  for  this  purpose.  The  square 
base  or  pedestal  is  to  be  fastened  to  the  floor,  and  the  tightening 
screw  inserted  in  the  hole  on  the  side  toward  the  engine.  This 
will  allow  the  dynamo  to  be  pushed  away  from  the  engine,  so 
as  to  tighten  the  belt  as  it  becomes  loose. 

If  it  is  desired  to  run  the  magneto  by  a  friction-pulley,  a  spring 
may  be  attached  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  magneto,  so  as 
to  draw  it  toward  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  engine.  In  this 
case,  the  tightening  screw 
will  be  omitted.  Friction- 
pulleys  are  furnished. 

The  armature  is  complete- 
ly enclosed,  and  the  magneto 
may  be  sprinkled  with  water 
without  damage. 

For  small  engines,  when 
the  fly-wheel  can  be  turned 
by  hand,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  use  a  battery  for  starting; 
but  when  the  engine  is  so 
large  that  it  can  be  turned 
but  slowly,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  six  or  eight  cells  of 
open-circuit  battery  for  furnishing  the  initial  spark.  Any  good 
type  of  Leclanche  battery  will  answer.  Dry  batteries  may  be 
used  if  the  magneto  is  to  be  used  on  an  automobile  where  the 
available  space  is  small. 

To  meet  the  wishes  of  those  who  have  individual  preferences 
for  the  dynamo  type  of  igniter,  and  to  meet  conditions  which  de- 
mand an  igniter  that  will  deliver  a  large  amount  of  energy  con- 
tinuously, as  for  instance  multiple-cylinder  engines,  the  Holtzer- 
Cabot  Electric  Company  have  brought  out  a  dynamo  type  of 


FIG.  81. — Vertical  magneto. 
Holtzer-Cabot  type. 


138 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


igniter.  This  new  igniter  will  work  through  a  range  of  speed  from 
1,000  R.P.M.  to  2,500  R.P.M.;  it  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  auto- 
mobile work,  it  being 
unnecessary  to  use  any 
governor  whatever.  It 
will  deliver  a  continuous 
output  of  50  watts  and 
will  serve  under  the 
most  severe  and  exact- 
ing conditions.  The  ig- 
niter is  pivoted  on  a 
sub-base  and  the  belt 
is  tightened  or  the  pres- 
sure of  the  friction-pulley  regulated  by  means  of  two  butt-screws 
which  rock  the  machine  forward  or  backward  as  the  case  may  be. 
Fig.  82  represents  a  generator  used  on  the  Sumner  gas  and  gaso- 
line-engines. The  spark  is  produced  by  a  plunger  contact  with  the 
commutator  operated  from  a  cam  on  the  secondary  shaft. 


FIG.  82. — The  permanent-field  generator. 


MULTIPLE-CYLINDER   IGNITION 

In  Fig.  83  is  illustrated  a  dynamo  of  the  Bosch  type.  The  arma- 
ture A,  which  is  stationary,  is  provided  with  two  windings,  AI  and 
A2,  of  which  AI  is  of  stout  wire, 
and  corresponds  to  the  primary 
winding  of  an  induction  coil,  A2 
being  of  fine  wire  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  secondary.  The  changes 
of  magnetism  in  the  armature 
core,  which  give  rise  to  the  cur- 
rent, are  produced  by  the  rotation 
of  a  soft  iron  sleeve  B,  which  par- 
tially surrounds  it,  and  is  integral 
with  the  hollow  shaft  BI,  which 
also  carries  the  notched  disk  B2, 
and  the  high-tension  distributing 
disk  D.  One  end  of  the  winding 
AI  is  grounded  Oil  the  shaft  of  the  FIG-  83. — Multiple-cylinder  ignition. 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION  139 

apparatus,  and  the  secondary  winding  forms  a  continuation  of 
the  primary.  The  other  end  of  the  primary  winding  A!  is 
led  to  one  side  of  the  contact-breaker  B3,  and  to  one  terminal 
of  the  condenser,  the  other  terminal  of  the  condenser,  and  the 
moving  arm  of  the  contact-breaker  B3,  being  grounded.  The 
sleeve  B  is  slotted,  and  when  the  slots  come  opposite  the  poles 
of  the  field  magnet,  the  armature  receives  magnetism  from  the 
field  magnet,  and  is  deprived  of  it  again  as  the  slots  pass  around, 
and  a  powerful  current  is  consequently  induced  in  its  wind- 
ings. The  contacts  of  the  contact-breaker  B3  are  normally  held 
together  by  the  action  of  the  disk  B2,  and  during  these  periods  the 
low-tension  winding  AI  is  closed  on  itself,  so  that  a  powerful  current 
flows  through  it  at  the  moments  when  the  magnetism  of  its  core 
is  being  varied  by  the  rotating  sleeve  B.  When  one  of  the  notches 
in  B2,  which  are  steep  on  one  side  and  bevelled  on  the  other,  come 
under  the  lower  end  of  the  contact-lever  arm  B3,  the  latter  snaps 
back,  owing  to  the  action  of  its  spring,  separates  the  two  contacts, 
and  breaks  the  circuit  of  AI.  This  produces  a  high-tension  current 
in  the  secondary  or  fine-wire  winding  A2,  the  condenser  C  in- 
creasing the  effect.  As  the  secondary  winding  is  connected  to  the 
primary  as  described,  and  as  it  is  grounded  through  it,  successively 
connecting  the  central  rods  of  the  sparking  plugs  FI,  F2,  F3,  F4 
to  the  opposite  end  of  the  secondary  A2,  it  causes  sparks  to  pass  in 
the  four  cylinders  at  the  right  moments,  the  tension  or  voltage  of 
the  primary  and  secondary  being  added  to  one  another.  The  dis- 
tribution is  effected  by  the  commutator,  or  distributor,  D.  This 
consists  of  the  rotating  disk  D,  carrying  the  metal  plate  A2,  which 
is  in  conducting  connection  with  the  insulated  end  of  the  secondary 
winding  A2.  As  the  disk  revolves,  this  metal  plate  makes  contact 
successively  with  the  fixed  brushes  1,  2,  3,  4. 


THE   APPLE    IGNITION-DYNAMO 

In  Fig.  84  we  illustrate  a  neat  and  compact  ignition-dynamo 
made  by  the  Dayton  Electrical  Manufacturing  Company,  Dayton, 
0.  It  is  entirely  enclosed  in  a  case,  practically  water  and  dust 
proof.  The  pulley  has  a  friction-clutch  governor  acting  on  the 
rim  of  the  pulley  and  attached  to  the  spindle  of  the  armature.  The 


140 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


clutch  shoes  of  the  governor  are  closed  on  the  rim  by  the  springs, 
while  the  centrifugal  force  of  overspeed  releases  them,  and  between 
the  action  of  the  two  forces,  the  dynamo  runs  steadily  with  a  vari- 
able speed  of  the  motor. 

In  the  sectional  detail  of  the  parts  of  the  Apple  dynamo,  A 
is  the  cast-iron  case;  B,  the  hinged  cover;  C,  one  of  the  cast-iron 
pole  pieces  of  the  field  magnets,  which  are  fixed  to  the  case  by 
screws  as  shown;  D,  the  armature,  the  core  of  which  is  built  up 
from  thin-toothed  disks  of  soft  sheet-iron;  E,  the  coil  of  one  of  the 
field  magnets;  F,  brass  bearing;  G  and  H,  hard-fibre  tubes  covering 
the  spindle;  K,  brass  spider  and  spindle  bearing;  L,  commutator 


FIG.  84. — Sectional  diagram  of  the  Apple  dynamo, 

with  mica  insulation;  M,  wick-feed  oil-cup;  N  and  P,  bevelled  nuts 
clamping  the  commutator  bars;  R,  driving  disk  and  rim  containing 
the  centrifugal  clutch  cover;  S,  pinion  fixed  to  driving  disk  R  and 
revolving  freely  on  the  spindle. 

Several  forms  of  internal  circuit-breakers  have  been  devised, 
in  which  is  represented  a  reciprocating  rod  which  may  be  operated 
by  a  connecting  rod  with  a  cam.  The  insulation  is  made  within  a 
sliding  tube,  which  allows  of  considerable  motion  in  order  to  allow 
the  contact  piece  to  slip  off  suddenly  from  the  stud  which  is  fixed 
in  the  cylinder-head. 

In  Fig.  85  is  represented  a  similar  device,  in  which  the  insulated 
rod  rotates  by  an  outside  gear  driven  from  the  valve  shaft.  The 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


141 


rotating  spindle  carries  the  insulated  rod  and  break-piece  eccen- 
trically, so  that  its  contact  and  break  can  be  accurately  regulated 
by  rotating  the  position  of 
the  teeth  of  the  gears. 

Fig.  86  represents  the 
sparking  device  used  by 
the  Union  Gas  Engine 
Company,  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  and  consists  of  a 
rocking  shaft  carrying  a 
flattened  pin  K  on  the 
end  inside  of  the  firing 


FIG.  85. — Rotating  spark-break. 


chamber,  which,  by  its 
rocking  motion,  is  brought 
in  contact  with  an  insulated  spring  S.  The  spring  contact  piece, 
bearing  against  and  rubbing  the  rocking  pin,  secures  perfect  free- 
dom of  current  circuit  while  in  contact. 

The  operating  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  87,  where  the  push-rod 
R,  connecting  with  an  arm  moved  by  a  cam  on  the  secondary 

shaft,  is  adjusted  to 
make  the  break  con- 
tact at  the  required 
moment ;  while  the  con- 
tact spring  at  M  re- 
lieves the  battery  cir- 
cuit dur  ng  the  time 
of  three  cycles. 

Ignition  from  the 
current  of  a  small  dy- 
namo attached  to  the 
engine  and  driven  at 
the  proper  speed  from 
the  engine-shaft  is  in 
successful  use  and  does 

FIG.  86.-Rocking  shaft  sparker.  awa^  with   the   Care  °f 

a  battery.  This  re- 
quires no  induction-coil,  the  spark  being  made  directly  through 
the  break  device  and  electrodes. 


142 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


A  current-breaker  used  on  the  Priestman  engine  is  shown  in 
Fig.  88,  where  an  arm  kept  in  position  by  a  spring  or  weighted 


FIG.  87. — The  operating  device 

lever  is  made  to  touch  a  spud  revolving  on  the  secondary  shaft. 
A  movable  sleeve  on  the  shaft  is  set  back  or  forward  for  time  adjust- 
ment  of  the  contact-break. 

In  Fig.  89  we  illustrate  a  simple  and  easily  made  hammer 
spark-plug  which  may  be  inserted  through  the  cylinder-head  with 
a  flange-joint,  fixed  with  two  studs  or  tap-bolts.  A  spring  at  s 


FIG.  88. — The  current-breaker. 

holds  the  shoulder  of  the  terminal  a  close  to  the  plug  P  so  that  the 
shaft  b  may  have  free  motion  in  the  plug;  d  is  the  outside  arm 
rocked  by  the  cam  rod. 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


143 


The  fixed  terminal  is  insulated  by  a  lava  sleeve  which  may  be 
in  two  parts  with  asbestos  washers  to  prevent  breaking  of  the  lava 
shoulders. 

The  contact  surfaces  x  and  y,  shown  in  the  front  view  of  the 
plug,  should  be  made  of  platinum,  brazed  to  the  terminals.  The 
method  of  connecting  with  the  battery  and  spark-coil  is  distinctly 
shown  in  the  cut 

In  Figs.  90  and  91  we  illustrate  the  details  of  the  mercurial 
sparker  of  Mr.  J.  V.  Rice,  Jr.,  Edgewater  Park,  N.  J.  It  is  well 


FIG.  89. — Hammer  spark  igniter. 

known  that  the  break  of  contact  with  mercury  produces  a  brilliant 
spark  from  the  electric  current,  or  what  is  called  in  gas-engine  par- 
lance a  "fat  spark."  This  idea  has  been  found  in  practice  to  meet 
some  of  the  faults  of  the  hammer  break  devices  and  seems  to  insure 
a  constant  service  in  this  important  adjunct  in  explosive-motor 
running. 

The  deep  cup  of  mercury  is  enclosed  in  a  small  water  chamber 
forming  part  of  the  cooling  circulation  of  the  cylinder,  and  make- 
and-break  contact  is  made  by  the  movement  of  an  insulated  spin- 


144 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


die  operated  direct  from  a  cam  in  a  two-cycle  engine  or  the  reducing 

shaft  in  a  four-cycle  type. 

The  timing  is  regulated  by  screwing  the  spindle  up  or  down, 

as  shown  in  the  cuts.  The 
connections  with  a  spark- 
ing coil  and  battery,  or 
with  a  dynamo,  are  made 
in  the  same  manner  as 
with  other  break-contact 
sparking  devices. 

The  sparker  has  been 
in  use  for  many  months 
on  a  gasoline- engine  driv- 
ing a  machine-shop  motive 
plant,  a  launch,  and  a 
.high-speed  tricycle,  with- 
out misfires  except  by 
control. 

The  evaporation  of 
mercury  from  the  cell  is 

exceptionally    small     and 
FIG.  90. —The  Rice  sparker.  " 

does  not  spill  by  the  jar 

of  the  motor.     The  amount  of  mercury  actually  lost  in  a  year's 
run  of  a  12  H.P.  motor  does  not  exceed  35  cents  in  cost.     High 


TO  BATTERY 


FIG.  91. — Rice  valve  gear. 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


145 


speed,  which  sometimes  interferes  with  the  perfect  operation  of 
igniters,  in  a  test  of  this  device  by  the  writer,  has  been  found  to 
give  a  perfect  ignition  at  all  speeds 
up  to  more  than  2,300  revolutions 
per  minute. 

In  Fig.  92  is  illustrated  the  break- 
spark  controlling  device  of  the  Lozier 
motor. 

The  motion  of  the  cam-operated 
rod  B,  which  carries  the  bell-crank 
push-blade,  regulated  by  the  let-off 
screw  J,  lifts  the  bushing  D  against 
the  spring  K — thus  allowing  the  arm 
E  to  be  lifted  by  the  spring  and 
plunger  L,  M,  making  contact  of  the 
break-spark  points  and  establishing 
the  electric  circuit.  At  the  desired 
sparking  moment,  the  rod  B  and  trip  disengage  the  plunger  D, 
and  it  drops  by  the  force  of  the  spring  K  upon  the  arm  E,  and 
breaks  the  contact  of  the  sparking  points. 


FIG.  92. —  Lozier  break -spark 
device. 


ELECTRIC    IGNITION-PLUGS 

The  Sta-Rite  Ignition-Plug  is  now  made  by  The  R.  E.  Hardy 
Company,   225  West  Broadway,   New  York  City.     The  special 
points  in  its  construction  make  it  long  lived  and  a 
sure  ignition  device. 

In  Fig.  93  we  illustrate  a  detailed  section  of  this 
plug.  As  the  end  of  plug  entering  combustion  cham- 
ber is  much  hotter  than  the  outer  end,  the  porcelain 
is  made  in  two  pieces  to  take  care  of  the  difference 
in  temperature.  The  best  porcelain  is  used  and  the 
inner  porcelain  is  turned  in  a  lathe  so  that  the  ma- 
terial is  much  closer  and  tougher  than  if  made  in  a 
die.  Ample  air  space  is  provided  so  that  soot  and  oil 
do  not  cause  short  circuiting. 
Section  of  The  shoulder  of  inner  porcelain  is  forced  against 

plug.         the  packed  shoulder  of  shell  by  the  head  on  the  bolt, 


146 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


instead  of  away  from  the  shoulder.  It  is,  therefore,  very  easy  to 
keep  the  plug  tight. 

The  short  protected  point  is  not  warped  out  of  position  by  the 
intense  heat. 

Flat-steel  tension-washers  are  placed  under  the  set-nuts,  so  that 
they  do  not  work  loose.  These  washers,  with  the  vulcabeston 
packing  washers,  allow  for  difference  in  contraction  and  expansion 
between  the  metal  and  porcelain  parts  of  the  plug. 

The  shell  of  plug  is  made  of  steel  and  all  exposed  metal  parts 
are  nickel-plated. 

In  Fig.  94  is  shown  the  "Standard"  plug  in  general  use.  This 
company  manufacture  a  variety  of  models  of  their  plugs  with 


94. — Standard  plug. 


FIG.  95. — Special  plug. 


Hnch  and  f-inch  threads,  and  short  and  long  shanks,  to  suit  the 
requirement  of  thickness  of  cylinder-heads  and  valve  chambers  of 
marine  and  automobile-motors,  and  also  to  suit  the  metric  threads 
of  imported  automobile-motors. 

In  Fig.  95  is  shown  an  example  of  a  special  plug  made  for  the 
"  Thomas  flyers." 

On  the  care  of  the  sparking  plug,  the  makers  of  the  "Sta-Rite" 
have  given  some  details  which  are  worthy  of  a  place  here : 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   IGNITION  147 

."In  all  forms  of  gasoline  internal-combustion  engines,  the  most 
difficult  and  severest  duty  falls  upon  the  spark-plug,  which  must 
resist  350  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch,  must  stand  a  high 
temperature  (it  is  exposed  to  flame  under  pressure  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  3,000°),  and  in  addition  it  must  perfectly  insulate  a  high- 
pressure  electric  current  of  from  10,000  to  25,000  volts.  It  is 
also  exposed  to  deposits  of  carbon  which  tend  to  allow  the  spark 
to  escape  by  providing  a  path  for  it  to  go  where  the  combustible 
gas  cannot  get  to  it,  thus  causing  misfires  or  total  stoppage  of 
motor.  The  spark-plug  is  thus  seen  to  be  the  most  important, 
part  of  the  machine,  and  also  the  part  which  most  needs  to  be 
thoroughly  understood  and  carefully  handled.  'Sta-Rite'  plugs 
are  designed  to  fulfil  all  of  the  requirements  of  severe  conditions  of 
service,  and  are  also  constructed  so  as  to  be  readily  taken  apart  for 
inspection,  cleaning,  repairs,  or  any  other  purpose.  And  when 
they  fail  to  work  properly  it  is  always  because  of  some  easily  reme- 
died fault  which  should  be  sought  intelligently  and  removed.  In 
case  of  failure  to  ignite  at  all,  the  first  thing  to  inspect  is  your  coil ; 
see  that  the  vibrator  works  when  circuit  is  on;  next,  remove  wire 
from  top  of  plug,  hold  it  J  of  an  inch  from  metal  parts  and  observe  if 
spark  will  jump  the  gap.  It  must  be  capable  of  jumping  at  least 
six  times  the  space  of  gap  between  spark  points  inside,  as  the  re- 
sistance of  hot  gas  under  pressure  is  much  greater  than  free  air.  If 
spark  is  weak,  a  new  battery  or  coil  is  required;  but  if  this  cannot 
be  supplied  at  once,  a  plug  having  shorter  spark  gap  may  be  made 
to  work,  or  the  one  in  hand  may  have  gap  shortened  by  turning 
bolt  inside  of  porcelain  (first  removing  cap  and  loosening  nut),  till 
best  position  is  found.  The  best  distance  for  most  circumstances 
is  ^  °f  an  inch,  but  with  weak  battery  better  results  may  be  secured 
by  a  shorter  gap.  While  with  strong  spark,  capable  of  jumping 
greater  resistance,  a  more  certain  ignition  is  secured  by  having  a 
somewhat  wider  gap,  it  all  depends  on  the  power  of  coil  and  battery 
what  width  is  best,  and  you  should  never  make  changes  unless  sure 
that  you  have  extra  plugs  with  you,  or  are  certain  that  you  know 
what  the  result  will  be.  If  the  spark  is  good,  the  plug  should  next 
be  removed  and  inspected  for  carbon  deposit,  or  cracks  in  insulation. 
Carbon  deposit  will  not  take  place  unless  you  are  feeding  too  much 
oil,  or  burning  more  gasoline  than  can  be  completely  consumed.  If 


148 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


carbonized,  the  deposit  may  be  washed  out  with  gasoline  or  kero- 
sene and  a  small  sliver  of  wood.  If  tube  is  cracked  or  broken,  a 
new  one  must  be  inserted.  If  sparking  end  of  plug  appears  all 
right,  the  next  thing  is  to  remove  nuts  and  cap  from  top  of  plug, 
and  see  if  it  is  wet  or  coated  with  carbon  on  inside.  If  wet,  it  must 
be  wiped  dry,  and  replaced;  if  black,  it  must  be  cleaned,  and  a  new 
packing  inserted  inside  of  steel  shell  under  shoulder  of  porcelain 
tube;  or  else  the  packing  has  been  destroyed  under  head  of  bolt, 
and  must  be  renewed,  which  may  be  done  without  removing  por- 
celain from  shell.  If  necessary  to  remove  it,  same  is  safely  done  by 
swinging  entire  plug  in  hand,  and  striking  threaded  end  of  bolt 
rather  sharply  against  end  of  wooden  box,  hammer  handle,  or  other 
surface  which  cannot  injure  threads.  When  reassembling  plugs, 
care  should  be  taken  to  replace  porcelain  tube  in  same  position  it 
formerly  occupied,  or  else  change  packing  for  a  new  one.  Other- 
wise a  leak  may  result.  The  small  nut  inside  of  cap  should  have  an 


Fig.  96. — French  ignition-plug. 


FIG.  97.— Soot-proof  sparking  plug. 


asbestos  packing  or  a  spring  washer  under  it  to  prevent  coming 
loose.  The  bent  washer  on  top  of  cap  is  intended  to  allow  for  ex- 
pansion of  porcelain  when  heated,  and  should  always  be  placed 
concave  side  down  under  check-nuts  and  drawn  down  till  about 
half  flattened  out.  If  drawn  down  solid,  porcelains  are  more  apt 
to  break,  and  the  bolt  head  may  be  pulled  off  by  expansion  when 
hot." 

The  ignition  of  the  charge  has  undergone  much  change  in  the 
past  five  years  in  the  various  appliances  and  trials  which  have 
resulted  in  placing  the  electric  jump-spark  in  the  lead  for  relia- 
bility and  certainty  of  action.  The  form  of  the  plug  containing 
the  electrodes  has  undergone  many  changes  in  order  to  eliminate 
the  short-circuit  propensities  of  these  simple  devices  by  the  car- 
bonizing of  the  insulating  surfaces  and  to  obtain  adjustment  to 
meet  the  abrading  propensities  of  the  electric  spark.  In  Fig.  96 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   IGNITION 


149 


we  give  a  section  of  an  ignition-plug  of  French  design  much  in  use 
on  automobile-motors.  The  plug  and  nut  may  be  made  of  hard 
brass  with  an  extension  piece  with  an  electrode  of  platinum;  the 
spindle  of  copper  with  a  fixed  collar  for  adjustment  and  terminating 
in  a  platinum  blunt-point  electrode.  The  insulation  is  porcelain 
or  of  lava  in  two  pieces  with  a  mica  disk  between,  thick  enough  to 
allow  of  closing  the  electrodes  by  splitting  off  thin  slices  from  the 
mica  disk.  The  lava  insulator  can  now  be  obtained  from  the 
makers,  the  D.  M.  Steward  Manufacturing  Company,  Chattanooga, 
Term. 

A  soot-proof  sparking  plug  of  the  Mezger  type  is  shown  in  Fig. 
97  and  consists  of  an  annular  projection  on  the  end  of  the  porce- 
lain insulator  which  extends  the  insulating  surface  and  prevents 


FIG.  98. — Double  spark-plug. 


FIG.  99.— The  Splitdorf  ignition-plu; 


short  circuiting  of  the  electric  spark.  These  plugs  are  made  by 
C.  A.  Mezger,  203  West  Sixtieth  Street,  New  York  City. 

The  double-break  spark-plug  of  the  Westinghouse  Machine 
Company  is  a  novelty  in  its  line,  which  we  illustrate  in  Fig.  98. 

By  a  special  system  of  wiring  and  break-spark  connections  the 
double  spark  may  be  made  simultaneous  or  successive,  a  most  de- 
sirable feature  in  electric  ignition. 

The  Splitdorf  ignition-plug  shown  in  Fig.  99  has  a  high  reputa- 
tion ;  the  insulation  being  of  porcelain  and  mica,  and  the  electrodes 
of  iridium  and  platinum  alloy,  a  guarantee  of  their  lasting  quality. 

A  sparking  plug  with  an  extended  insulation-cylinder  with  a 
crossed-wire  electrode  has  been  the  subject  of  a  recent  patent,  in 
which  a  double  loop  of  two  U-shaped  platinum  wires  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles  at  the  sparking  distance  from  the  insulated 
electrode,  is  used  in  connection  with  the  extended  insulation-plug, 


150 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


FIG.  100. — Ignition-plug  and  valve 
position. 


and  so  placed  that  the  inlet  charge  sweeps  across  the  wires  and 
keeps  them  cool  enough  to  prevent  premature  firing.  The  plug 
and  valve  positions  are  shown  in  Fig.  100. 

In  Fig.  101  is  illustrated  an  ignition-plug,  the  design  of  Mr. 

Harry  B.  Maxwell,  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  in  which  the  termi- 
nals are  blunt  and  spherical, 
which  produce  a  more  brilliant 
spark  than  plugs  with  small 
or  thin  terminals.  In  this 
design  it  is  noted  that  the 
lava  or  porcelain  insulating 
tube  extends  a  distance  be- 
yond the  iron  plug  that 
greatly  increases  the  insu- 
lating surface  and  distance 
between  the  metallic  parts  of  the  plug.  The  extension-finger 
electrode  may  be  made  of  steel  or  copper  with  a  cap  of  nickel  or 
platinum  brazed  on.  The  centre-rod  electrode  with  a  nickel  or 
platinum  cap  may  fit  loosely  in  the  insulating  tube  with  the  shoul- 
der packed  with  asbestos.  Asbestos  also  makes  a  good  and  elastic 
packing  for  the  shoulders  of  the  lava  or  porcelain  tube.  The  spring 
and  nuts  hold  the  central  electrode  firmly  to  its  seat  and  allow  for 
differential  expansion. 

A  novel  igniter,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Chas.  E.  Duryea,  and  called 
the  "Exploder,"  is  of  a  design  to  replace  the  jump-spark  plug  with 
an  automatic  make-and- 
break  spark  mechanism, 
furnishing  a  powerful 
single  spark  of  low  ten- 
sion. The  spark  is  not 
a  series  of  flashes  like 
those  from  a  jump-spark 
coil  fitted  with  a  vibra- 


Fig.  101. — Maxwell  ignition-plug. 


tor,  but  the  entire  force  of  a  primary  circuit  is  given  in  a  single 
flash,  always  produced  at  a  predetermined  time  that  remains 
unaffected  by  the  tone  at  which  the  vibrator  is  pitched. 

When  the  circuit  is  connected  the  exploder  magnet  instantly 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


151 


closes  the  sparking  circuit  through  the  spark-coil,  and  when  the 
circuit  is  broken  the  spark-coil  circuit  instantly  breaks,  discharging 
its  full  intensity,  made  even  more  intense  by  the  discharge  of  the 
magnet.  The  result  is  a  superior  spark,  with  easy  starting,  great 
power,  steady  running,  practically  no  misfire  or  jerking  and  strain- 
ing of  the  gears,  chains,  bearings,  and  other  parts. 

Any  suitable  source  of  electricity  may  be  used,  but  unless  other- 
wise ordered,  the  exploders  are  wound  for  regular  direct-current 
magneto.  From  the  generator  the  electric  current  flows,  when 
connected  by  the  commutator,  through  binding  post  to  coil  of  the 


FIG.  102.— The  exploder. 


FIG.  103. — Section  of  exploder. 


magnet,  finally  grounding  on  the  shell  of  the  magnet  and  returning 
by  way  of  the  engine  and  the  ground  wire  of  the  generator  to  com- 
plete the  circuit.  The  magnet  instantly  attracts  the  armature  and 
forces  the  reciprocating  spark-pin  firmly  into  contact  with  the 
adjustable  sparking  point,  thus  closing  the  sparker  circuit.  This 
permits  a  flow  of  current  through  the  coil,  thence  to  the  binding 
post,  and  through  the  armature  and  sparking  pin  to  the  engine 
and  ground  wire  of  the  generator.  The  resistance  of  the  magnet 
winding  is  so  great  that  but  little  current  flows  through  it,  which 
forces  almost  the  entire  output  of  the  generator  through  the  coil, 
thoroughly  saturating  it.  When  the  magnet  circuit  is  broken  by 
the  commutator  the  armature  is  released  and  flies  back  quickly 


152  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

under  the  action  of  its  spring  till  it  strikes  the  head  of  the  sparking 
pin,  still  held  hi  contact  by  a  light  spiral  spring,  and  knocks  it  out 
of  contact  with  a  velocity  exceedingly  great,  due  to  the  extreme 
lightness  of  the  needle  and  the  rapid  movement  of  the  armature. 

The  entire  strength  of  the  current  is  available  to  close  the  con- 
tact, and  since  magnetic  pull  increases  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance,  the  contact  is  always  firm  and  sure,  in  spite  of  oil  or  soot. 
Once  in  contact,  an  infinitesimal  amount  of  current  suffices  to  hold 
the  armature  because  of  the  short  distance  and  the  very  great  pull 
exerted  by  the  magnet  when  once  closed.  This  permits  nearly  all 
the  current  to  saturate  the  coil,  giving  the  largest  spark  possible, 
even  with  a  weak  current.  The  breaking  of  the  magnet  circuit 
throws  all  the  current  through  the  coil,  charging  it  to  the  fullest  as 
the  magnet  discharges,  and  in  addition  throwing  into  the  coil  the 
intense  discharge  impulse  of  the  magnetic  circuit,  actually  com- 
pounding the  effect. 

The  spark  does  not  occur  until  the  magnet  circuit  is  broken  at 
the  commutator,  and  this  magnet  circuit  does  nothing  except  close 
and  break  the  sparking  circuit.  This  insures  that  the  spark-coil  is 
saturated  as  fully  as  the  source  of  current  will  permit,  instead  of 
making  a  spark  as  soon  as  the  magnet  is  strong  enough  to  work 
the  armature  and  before  the  coil  has  time  to  saturate.  This  device 
will  work  with  a  weak  current  or  a  strong  one  and  give  the  greatest 
spark  possible  with  either,  and  in  these  facts  lie  its  merit. 


THE    JUMP-SPARK    COIL 

For  a  better  understanding  of  the  detail  of  construction  of  an 
induction-coil  of  suitable  size  for  the  ignition  of  the  explosive 
charge  of  a  gas,  gasoline,  or  oil-engine,  we  therefore  illustrate 
in  Fig.  104  the  details  of  such  a  coil  without  a  vibrator,  and  in 
Fig.  105  the  same  coil  with  the  vibrator.  A  coil  of  the  size  here 
given  and  detailed  should  give  a  full  and  hot  spark  for  any  or- 
dinary engine  across  a  TV  to  -^-inch  space  between  the  elec- 
trodes. Its  full-length  spark  should  be  equal  to  a  jump  of  from 
§  to  f  of  an  inch  between  wire  terminals.  The  iron  core,  H,  H, 
is  made  up  of  annealed  wire,  No.  20  wire  gauge,  6  inches  long,  as 
many  pieces  as  can  be  pushed  into  a  f-inch  paper  tube,  5f  inches 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   IGNITION 


153 


long,  made  by  wrapping  paper  on  a  f  rod  with  shellac  varnish  be- 
tween the  layers,  say  a  half-dozen  layers,  and  shellac  the  outside. 
Push  on  to  each  end  of  the  paper  tube  a  square  wooden  flange, 
\  inch  thick,  4  inches  diameter,  even  with  the  end  of  the  paper  tube 
and  square  with  it.  Fas- 
ten the  wood  ends  strongly 
with  shellac  and  shellac 
their  entire  surface. 

This  will  then  make  a 
spool  4f  inches  long  for 
winding  the  coils.  Bore  a 
hole  in  one  of  the  heads 
close  to  the  paper  tube  to 
pass  one  end  of  the  primary  FlG"  104. -Jump-spark  coil,  without  vibrator. 

coil  through  and  another  a  little  farther  around  to  receive  the 
other  end.  Wind  on  the  spool  two  layers  of  No.  16  double 
cotton  or  silk-covered  copper  wire  with  the  ends  passed  through 
the  holes  in  the  spool  flange.  Give  the  coil  a  coat  of  shellac 
varnish  and  dry.  Then  wrap  the  primary  coil  with  three  thick- 
nesses of  paper  with  shellac  varnish  between  each  wrapping 
with  a  perfect  closure  at  the  flanges  and  over  the  exit  wires  of  the 
primary.  Dry  and  shellac  the  outside. 

The  secondary  coil  may  be  made  of  8  ounces  of  double  silk- 
covered  copper  wire,  No.  36  gauge;  commencing  by  passing  one 
end  through  the  hole  in  the  opposite  flange  from  the  primary  ter- 
minals and  winding  closely 


but  not  tight,  one  layer, 
shellac  and  cover  with  two 
layers  of  paper,  shellaced, 
and  a  third  layer  at  each 
end  to  make  a  sure  closure 
against  a  spark  passing 
across  the  layers  at  the 
ends  of  the  spool.  Con- 
tinue this  back  and  for- 


105. — Jump-spark  coil,  with  vibrator. 


ward  method  of  winding  for  the  whole  amount  of  wire,  covering 
each  layer  as  the  first,  and  terminate  through  a  hole  in  spool  flange 
at  the  same  end  as  it  commenced.  This  should  not  be  a  hurried 


154  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

job;  give  each  layer  time  to  dry.  The  perfection  of  the  whole 
coil  depends  upon  its  thorough  insulation,  especially  at  the  ends 
of  the  layers,  where  the  difference  in  potential  is  greatest  with  a 
liability  of  sparking  from  layer  to  layer  of  the  coil  and  the  ruin 
of  the  work. 

Such  a  coil  may  be  used  without  a  vibrator,  and  referring  to 
Fig.  104,  in  which  the  leading  principles  of  construction  are  shown, 
P,  P,  M,  M  are  the  primary  binding  posts.  The  upper  posts,  P  and 
P,  are  connected  through  the  battery  and  switch.  The  lower  posts, 
M  and  M,  are  connected  through  the  breaker  on  the  reducing  gear 
from  the  crank-shaft  represented  at  N,  F,  D,  G.  The  upper  post  P, 
and  the  lower  post  M,  are  directly  connected,  making  a  complete 
primary  circuit  from  the  battery  A,  through  the  switch  J  and  post 
P  around  the  core  and  post  M  to  the  breaker  at  D,  and  through  the 
lower  post  M  and  across  by  the  upper  post  P  to  the  battery. 
The  condenser  L  is  composed  of  strips  of  tin-foil  separated  by 
paraffined  paper  in  series  and  connected  at  M  M  as  a  shunt 
across  the  contact-breaker  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  an  extra 
current  induced  in  the  primary  coil  by  the  breaking  of  the  circuit, 
which  would  tend  to  prolong  the  magnetization  of  the  core  beyond 
the  desired  limit  in  a  high-speed  engine. 

The  condenser  may  be  made  of  a  size  to  be  enclosed  in  the 
hollow  base  upon  which  the  coil  is  to  be  fixed,  and  made  up  of  about 
71  sheets  of  plain  uncalendered  writing  paper,  say  5  by  8  inches, 
dipped  in  melted  paraffine  or  varnished  with  shellac  on  each  side; 
interleaved  with  70  sheets  of  tin-foil,  cut  4  by  7  inches,  with  an  ear 
at  one  corner  of  each  sheet  to  project  beyond  the  paper  sufficient 
to  allow  of  the  alternate  sheets  to  be  connected  together  on  op- 
posite corners.  The  pile  may  then  be  clamped  together  with  2 
pieces  of  board  well  shellaced.  The  ears  of  each  set  of  35  sheets 
may  then  be  pressed  together  and  clamped  for  connecting  to  the 
binding  posts  M  M.  Condensers  are  not  absolutely  necessary 
and  many  jump-spark  coils  are  in  use  without  them.  The  theory 
is  that  the  electro-magnetic  force  of  self-induction  in  the  primary, 
which  is  principally  instrumental  in  causing  the  spark  at  break 
contact,  will  expend  most  of  its  energy  in  charging  the  condenser, 
causing  the  break-spark  of  the  primary  to  be  less  and  the  current 
to  become  zero  with  greater  rapidity.  The  practical  effect  of  the 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   IGNITION 


155 


FIG.  106. — The  Splitdorf  induction-coil  case. 


condenser  on  the  spark  volume  of  the  secondary  is  very  great,  or 
what  is  commonly  called  a  fat  spark. 

The  vibrating  coil  (Fig.  105)  is  of  the  same  general  construction 
as  described,  with  the  addition  of  a  spring  vibrator  shown  at  F  G. 
The  steel  spring  G  F 
may  be  1J  inches  in 
length  and  J  inch  in 
width,  fastened  to  a 
post  at  F  and  fixed 
to  a  small  armature  of 
soft  iron  at  G  with  a 
platinum  or,  what  is 
better,  an  alloy  of  plati- 
num and  iridium  con- 
tact piece  at  E.  D  is 
a  brass  post  with  a  platinuin-iridium-point  adjusting  screw,  and 
connected  to  the  breaker  N  and  to  the  condenser  K  L,  completing 
the  primary  circuit  through  the  post  F,  the  switch  J,  and  the 
breaker  B. 

The  office  of  the  vibrator  is  to  give  a  rapid  intermission  of  the 
primary  current  while  the  commutator  bar  C  is  in  contact  with  the 
spring  B.  By  this  means  the  induced  secondary  current  also  be- 
comes intermittent  and  so  secures  a  succession  of  sparks  at  the 

electrodes    that    insures    a 
positive  ignition. 

The  complete  induction- 
coil  may  then  be  enclosed 
in  a  box  as  shown  in  Fig. 
106,  which  illustrates  a 
jump-spark  ignition  appa- 
ratus as  made  and  sold  by 
C.  F.  Splitdorf,  25  Vande- 
water  Street,  New  York 
City,  who  also  makes  an 
up-to-date  sparking  plug 
and  dynamo  sparker. 
In  Fig.  107  is  illustrated  the  four-cylinder  engine-dash  or  vibrat- 
ing coil,  which  consists  of  four  vertical  induction  coils  in  a  single 


FIG.  107. — Four-cvlinder  dash-coil. 


156 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


case.  The  coils  are  made  by  the  Splitdorf  Company,  in  one,  two, 
three,  and  four  each  in  a  single  case,  with  cut-out  switches  as  re- 
quired. They  operate  at  a  pressure  of  from  4  to  5  volts,  and  need 
not  over  4  dry-battery  cells  of  1J  volts  each  for  continued  use  on 
automobile-motors.  The  terminals  projecting  beneath  the  case 
are  for  the  spark-plug  connections.  The  post  at  the  right  connects 

with  the  battery,  switch,  and 
motor  frame;  the  four  others 
to  the  four-part  commutator 
on  the  crank  or  cam-shaft. 


IRREGULAR  TIME  IGNITION  FROM 
NON-SYNCHRONOUS    ACTION   OF 
THE    VIBRATOR    IN    HIGH- 
SPEED   MOTORS 

The  length  and  stiffness  of 
a  vibrator  spring 
on  a  jump-spark 
coil  causes  consider- 
able variation  in  its 
time  beat  and  in 
this  way,  by  vary- 
ing the  time  of  ig- 
nition, may  influ- 
ence a  motor's  run- 
ning not  easily 
observed  and  this 
source  of  trouble 
may  become  a  cause 
of  anxious  search 
in  the  action  of  very  high-speed  motors.  A  vibrator  may  have 
a  possible  variation  of  from  15  to  150  strokes  per  second,  and 
the  sparking  time  may  therefore  vary  from  -^  to  TJ-g-  of  a  second. 
With  a  motor  running  1,800  revolutions  per  minute,  a  revolu- 
tion is  -^j-  of  a  second,  so  that  the  strokes  of  the  vibrator  at  15,  30, 
45,  60,  and  120,  may  coincide  with  the  strokes  of  the  motor  and 
their  synchronism  will  produce  exact  and  uniform  time  sparks. 


.Spark  Coil 
FIG.  "108. — Dynamo  wiring. 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION  157 

Any  variation  in  the  running  time  of  the  motor  and  the  time  vibra- 
tion of  the  armature  will  advance  or  retard  the  sparking  moment; 
so  that  for  the  most  uniform  sparking  effect  under  the  varying 
speed  of  a  motor,  the  highest  effective  speed  of  the  vibrator  will 
give  the  best  results. 

EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   WIRING 

In  Fig.  108  is  illustrated  the  break-spark  method  of  wiring  for 
motor  ignition  from  a  dynamo  either  of  the  magneto  type  or  the 
self -exciting  field-wound  type  as  before  described,  which  will  fur- 
nish sufficient  current  for  a  good  spark  at  the  low  speed  of  800  revo- 
lutions per  minute;  but  for  sure  ignition  at  normal  speed,  the 


Batteries 


FIG.  109.— Wiring. 


FIG.  110.— Wiring. 


motor  should  run  at  a  speed  of  about  1,200  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. The  break  connections  are  not  shown.  The  usual  current  is 
at  about  10  volts  and  2  amperes. 

When  an  igniter  is  used  in  connection  with  an  engine  having 
two  cylinders,  there  should  be  a  separate  spark-coil  employed 
for  each  cylinder,  unless  a  multicylinder  timing  device  is  used. 

In  Fig.  109  are  shown  the  wiring  and  ignition  connections 
for  gas  and  gasoline- engines,  showing  battery  cut-off  switch .  of 
double-throw  type,  location  of  spark-coil,  and  current-breaker 
on  engine.  If  a  jump-spark  igniter  is  used,  an  induction-coil 
should  be  substituted  for  the  spark-coil. 

In  Fig  110  are  shown  an  automatic  switch  and  ignition  con- 
nections for  gas  and  gasoline-engines,  a  one-point  switch  to  cut 
out  the  battery  and  an  automatic  switch  so  arranged  that  failure  of 


158 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


the  dynamo-igniter  current  turns  on  the  battery  by  release  of  the 
armature  of  the  automatic  switch.  On  restoring  the  dynamo  cur- 
rent, the  automatic  switch  cuts  out  the  battery. 


i 

FIG.  111. — Jump-spark  ignition  wiring,  crank-shaft  breaker.     German  type. 

Fig.  Ill  shows  the  direct  connection  of  an  induction-coil  and  its 
battery  with  its  crank-shaft  breaker.     German  type. 


IGNITER  PLUG 


WIRING    FOR    A    SPARK-COIL 

The  manner  in  which  wires  are  connected  has  considerable 
to  do  with  the  successful  operation  of  an  explosive  motor,  par- 
ticularly when  a  magneto  is  used.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  wire  a 

battery  and  magneto,  and 
yet  successful  electricians 
have  been  puzzled  for  the 
moment  over  the  matter. 
Whether  a  magneto  or  only 
a  .battery  is  used,  the  wire 
from  the  spark-plug  on  the 
motor  should  be  connected 
to  the  outer  winding  of  wire 
in  the  spark-coil.  In  wiring 
a  magneto  (Fig.  112),  wire 
1  is  from  the  negative  pole 
i  of  the  batterv  to  the  bind- 

}.  112.—  Wiring;   combined  battery  and  J 

dynamo.  ing  post  on  the  side  of  the 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  IGNITION 


159 


motor;  wire  2  is  from  the  positive  or  zinc  pole  of  the  battery 
to  the  left  side  of  the  double  switch;  wire  3  is  from  the  centre 
post  on  the  switch  to  the 
inner  winding  of  the  spark- 
coil;  wire  4  is  from  the 
right  pole  of  the  switch  to 
one  post  on  the  magneto; 
wire  5  is  from  the  other 
post  on  the  magneto  to 
the  binding  post  on  the 
side  of  the  motor;  and  wire 
6  is  from  the  spark-plug 
on  top  of  the  motor  to  the 
outer  winding  of  the  coil, 
which  is  easily  determined. 

In  setting  a  magneto  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  shaft 
of  the  magneto  as  nearly  parallel  to  the  engine-shaft  as  possible, 
so  that  the  armature  may  work  without  binding  and  heating. 
The  friction- wheel  of  the  magneto  should  be  set  against  the 
fly-wheel  of  the  motor  sufficiently  to  permit  it  to  be  turned 


113. — Wiring  for  battery  and  spark-coil. 


GROUND  WIRE 

FIG.  114. — Jump-spark  from  battery. 


readily,  but  at  the  same  time  not  so  close  as  to  prevent  it  from 
running  easily. 

Where  the  battery  alone  is  used  diagram  (Fig.  113)  may  be  fol- 


160 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


lowed,  care  being  used  to  see  that  the  plug  on  the  motor  is  con- 
nected with  the  outer  winding  of  the  spark-coil. 


WIRING    FOR    JUMP-SPARK 

In  Fig.  114  are  shown  the  wiring  connections  of  a  four-cell  bat- 
tery, switch,  and  vibrating  induction-coil  to  the  shaft-break  and 
spark-plug  of  a  two-cycle  vehicle  motor. 

In  Fig.  115  are  shown  the  wiring  connections  of  a  combined 
dynamo,  battery,  and  vibrating  induction-coil  to  the  shaft-break 
and  spark-plug  of  a  two-cycle  vehicle  motor. 


GROUND  WIRE 


FIG.  115. — Jump-spark  from  dynamo  and  battery. 

These  vibrating  induction-coils  are  made  by  the  National  Coil 
Company,  Lansing,  Mich. 


MULTIPLE-SPARK  TIMER 

In  Fig.  116  are  shown  a  plan  and  section  of  a  jump-spark  timer 
for  four  cylinders. 

These  timers  are  made  by  the  Pittsfield  Spark  Coil  Company, 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  for  1,  2,  3,  and  4  cylinders. 

The  working  parts  are  of  steel,  the  arms  being  solid  steel  with 
coiled  springs  in  the  pivot  ends  which  hold  the  rollers  on  the  hard- 
ened steel  cam.  The  cam  is  pinned  by  a  steel  pin  to  the  secondary 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   IGNITION 


161 


shaft  of  the  engine.  The  contact  is  made  by  the  cam  lifting  each 
arm  in  turn  and  engaging  the  contact  surfaces  with  a  slight  sliding 
motion;  the  contact  points  are  held  firmly  together  by  springs  until 
the  cam  passes  and  the  contact  is  broken.  By  means  of  the  slight 


FIG.  116. — The  multi-cylinder  timer. 

sliding  motion  the  contact  surfaces  are  cleaned  at  each  impulse 
so  neither  oil,  dirt,  nor  heavy  grease  will  prevent  a  perfect  and 
complete  low-resistance  circuit  between  the  coil  and  batteries 
during  the  time  of  impulse. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

CYLINDER    LUBRICATORS   AND    MUFFLERS 

THE  lubrication  of  cylinders  of  explosive  motors  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance,  as  the  intensely  hot  gases  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  lubricating  oil,  although  the  oil  is  in  contact  with  a  com- 
paratively cool  metallic  surface,  have  an  evaporative  effect,  tending 


FIG.  117. — The  mechanical  lubricator. 
Crossley. 


FIG.  118. — The  Robey  oil-feeder, 
section. 


to  thicken  the  oil  into  a  gummy  lining  on  the  surface  of  the  cylinder. 
To  avoid  this  and  keep  a  perfect  lubrication,  an  oil  that  is  adapted 
to  this  severe  heat  trial  should  be  used  and  fed  to  the  cylinder  walls 
and  piston  in  constant  flow,  and  not  too  much  or  too  little,  but  just 
enough  so  that  the  oil  cannot  be  pushed  into  the  combustion  cham- 
ber in  excess,  so  as  to  be  blown  through  the  exhaust-valve  to  clog 
the  passages  with  oily  soot. 
162 


CYLINDER  LUBRICATORS   AND  MUFFLERS 


163 


The  sight-feed  and  capillary  drop-oil  feeders  have  been  per- 
fected to  such  an  extent  in  the  United  States  that  they  are  almost 
in  universal  use.  Yet  on  some  engines  with  revolving  valve-cam 
shafts,  the  facility  for  obtaining  easily  the  motion  for  a  mechanical 
lubricator  has  kept  this  form  in  use  on  many  engines. 

In  Fig.  117  is  illustrated  a  mechanical  lubricator  used  on  the 
Crossley  engines  in  England,  and  with  some  variations  on  other 
European  and  American  engines.     A  small  belt  from  the  valve- 
cam    shaft    to    the   pulley   A 
gives  the  required  motion  .to 
the  spindle  and  crank  C  C,  to 
which   is   loosely   attached    a 
wire  D,  that  dips  into  the  oil 
and  carries  a  minute  portion 
to  the  wiper  E,  from  which  the 
oil  drops  into  the  passage  to 
the  cylinder. 

In  Figs.  118  and  119  are 
shown  a  section  and  plan  of 
a  lubricator  used  on  the  Robey 
engines,  which  is  an  improve- 
ment over  the  previous  one,  in  that  it  has  a  small  receptacle 
above  the  level  of  the  main  oil  cistern,  which  is  fed  by  a  re- 
volving shaft  and  crank  arm  with  drop  wire  reaching  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cistern  and  wiping  the  oil  on  a  fixed  wiper  over  the  recep- 
tacle, from  which  a  second  crank  arm  and  drop  wire  lifts  the  oil 
to  the  wiper  that  feeds  the  passage  to  the  cylinder.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  oil  for  the  cylinder  is  drawn  from  a  fixed  level,  and 
the  feed  is  therefore  perfectly  uniform  at  any  level  of  the  oil  in 
the  cistern. 

Strict  attention  should  be  given  to  the  quality  of  the  oil  used 
in  the  cylinder.  Such  oil  is  now  made  and  sold  as  gas-engine  cylin- 
der oil  of  a  less  density  and  viscosity  than  the  ordinary  cylinder  oil, 
and  more  fluid,  so  that  it  flows  readily  over  the  surface  of  the  piston. 
Such  oil  does  not  readily  gum  in  the  cylinder  and  on  the  piston.  It 
evaporates  more  readily  than  heavy  oil  and  in  a  measure  mixes  with 
the  explosive  charge,  and  is  burned  and  discharged  with  the  gases  of 
the  exhaust,  thus  avoiding  the  sooty  oil  that  lodges  in  the  muffler 


FIG.  119.— The  Robey  oil-feeder,  plan. 


164 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


and  exhaust-pipe  from  the  heavier  oils.     A  very  small  quantity  of 
finely  pulverized  graphite,  used  with  this  oil  occasionally,  gives  good 

results  as  a  cylinder  lubricant  and 
imparts  a  smooth  and  glossy  surface 
to  both  cylinder  and  piston.  For 
all  other  parts  of  the  engine  the  best 
engine  oil  is  none  too  good.  The 
poorer  grades  of  machinery  oil  are 
not  economical  at  their  price. 

The  ojl  feed  to  the  main  journals 
of  a  motor  is  of  importance  as  to  its 
constancy,  and  has  suggested  some 
ingenious  devices  for  this  purpose  in 
the  form  of  chain  belts  and  rings 

running;  over  the  journals  and  dipping 
FIG.  120.— The  constant  oil-feed. 

into  an  oil  bath.  In  Fig.  120  we  il- 
lustrate the  ring  feed  as  used  on  the  Mietz  and  Weiss  and  other 
oil-engines.  A  cavity  at  the  outer  end  of  the  journal  box  returns 
the  excess  of  oil  to  the  oil-well,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

THE    GAS    BAG 

One  of  the  sources  of  annoyance  in  operating  a  gas-engine  comes 
from  defective  construction  of  the  gas  bag.  Many  times  it  is  either 
too  small  or  made  of  material  that  is  soon  decomposed  by  the  acid 
constituents  of  the  gas 
as  now  made,  when  the 
wrinkling  of  the  bag 
at  the  tube  connections 
causes  a  rupture  that 
is  not  repairable.  We 
illustrate  in  Fig.  121  a 
newly  designed  gas  bag 
in  which  the  former 
troubles  are  avoided  by 
reenforcing  the  entrance 
and  exit-tube  connection  with  flanges  of  rubber,  so  extended  as  to 
prevent  buckling,  and  with  an  enlarged  capacity  by  side  gussets, 
so  that  the  action  of  the  bag  has  great  freedom  from  the  jerky 


FIG.  121. — The  improved  gas  bag. 


CYLINDER  LUBRICATORS  AND  MUFFLERS  165 

action  of  high-speed  motors.  They  are  made  of  a  high-grade  and 
flexible  rubber  that  resists  the  injurious  effects  of  gas,  and  sold  by 
Montgomery  Brothers,  48  North  Front  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

MUFFLERS  FOR  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS 

The  method  of  muffling  the  sound  of  the  exhaust,  as  well  as 
also  the  sound  or  clack  of  the  valves,  was  a  puzzling  problem  to  the 
early  builders  of  gas-engines.  The  matter  has  finally  sifted  down  to 
a  plain  cast-iron  box  of  from  1  to  3  cubic  feet  capacity,  set  near 
the  engine,  and  into  which  the  exhaust-pipe  is  connected,  and  con- 
tinued by  a  separate  connection  to  the  outside  of  a  building. 

Connection  of  the  exhaust  with  a  chimney  should  not  be  made 
under  any  circumstances,  as  there  are  unknown  elements  of  ex- 
plosion liable  to  be  accumulated  in  the  line  of  the  exhaust  that 
might  do  damage  to  a  chimney;  and  for  the  same  reason  the  muffler- 
box  should  be  made  strong  enough  for  a  pressure  equal  to  the  ex- 
plosive power  of  the  gas  and  air  mixture,  or  say  175  pounds  per 
square  inch.  This  insures  safety  from  any  explosion  that  may 
accidentally  occur  in  the  exhaust  by  missed  explosions  in  the  cylin- 
der or  otherwise. 

The  muffler-pot  is  also  a  water-catch,  in  which  part  of  the  water- 
vapor  formed  by  the  union  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  is  con- 
densed. It  should  have  a  draw-off  cock  a  few  inches  above  the 
bottom,  so  that  the  muffler  may  always  have  a  little  water  in  the 
bottom,  the  water  having  been  found  to  have  a  deadening  effect  on 
the  exhaust. 

A  second  muffler-pot  has  been  found  to  still  further  deaden  the 
exhaust,  and  is  preferable  to  throttling  the  exhaust  by  mufflers 
with  perforated  diaphragms,  as  used  on  vehicles  and  boats. 

In  all  cases  an  enlargement  of  the  exhaust-pipe  from  the  muf- 
fler to  the  roof  by  one  or  two  sizes  larger  than  the  engine  exhaust, 
will  modify  the  intensity  of  the  exhaust  at  the  roof,  and  often 
abate  a  nuisance. 

In  Fig.  122  is  shown  a  muffler  easily  made  from  ordinary  gas- 
pipe  and  fittings,  consisting  of  a  perforated  exhaust-nozzle  within 
an  open-end  pipe  of  larger  size.  Its  construction  is  shown  in  the  cut. 

The  outside  or  shell  of  all  mufflers  should  be  felted  with  asbes- 
tos to  deaden  the  vibration  and  sound. 


166 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Fig.  123  shows  a  novel  muffler  of  the  Thompson  type,  which  has 
a  cylindrical  chamber  with  a  hooded  spreading  inlet-pipe;  and 

a  deflector  on  the 
exit  pipe,  by  which 
the  exhaust  puffs  are 
expanded  in  the  cy- 
linder and  issue  in 
nearly  constant 


g|S 

\\\}vTT 

;^<^2£BVfcV 

i 

o 

Oo°o0o°o 

°o°o 

°0°0 

o      o      o      o 

0        0 

0         0 

m 

FIG.  122. — Gas-pipe  muffler. 


a 

stream. 

Other  types  of  mufflers  have  strong  wire-gauze  cylinders  within 
the  drum  so  arranged  as  to  break  the  impact  and  disperse  the  ex- 
haust before  it  leaves  the  outer  shell. 

Mufflers  for  automobiles  and  launches  have  been  the  subject  of 
much  designing  in  order  to  have  them  meet  the  requirement 
of  almost  absolute  silence,  so  much  to  be  desired.  The  method 
of  perforated  tubes  with  wire-cloth  casings  of  large  area  for  cutting 
the  exhaust  into  infinitesimal  streams,  and  of  so  large  an  area  that 
the  back-pressure  may  be  reduced  to  an  imperceptible  amount, 
seems  to  be  in  the  right  direction  for  vehicles,  and  an  extension 
of  the  terminal  under  water  at  the  stern  of  launches  with  a  small 
vent  above  water  has  given  good  results.  The  vent  prevents 
water  drawing  back  to  the  muffler  when  the 
motor  stops.  For  large  stationary  motors  a 
variety  of  designs  for  the  internal  space  of  a 
muffler-box  have  been  made,  all  seeming  to  tend 
to  obtain  the  desired  conditions.  A  series  of  per- 
forated plates,  both  flat  and  circular;  small  stones 
filling  the  muffler-box,  through  which  the  exhaust 
passes;  a  spiral  case  within  the  muffler-box;  in 
fact,  almost  any  device  which  tends  to  -stop  the 
sudden  impact  of  the  exhaust  and  its  expansion  are 
the  means  that  modify  and  in  a  measure  prevent 
the  noisy  propensities  of  the  explosive  motor. 


FTG.  123. 
Thompson  muffler. 


To  prevent  nuisance  to  neighbors  by  open-air  exhaust,  the  turn- 
ing down  of  the  exhaust-pipe  into  a  barrel  or  second  muffler-pot 
with  a  few  inches  of  water,  has  given  satisfaction  in  many  cases. 
It  prevents  the  spread  of  oil-vapor  into  neighboring  windows. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CONSTRUCTION    DETAILS    AND    PARTS    OF   THE    EXPLOSIVE    MOTOR 

THE  design  of  an  explosive  motor  should  start  from  some  as- 
signed dimension  of  the  cylinder,  based  upon  the  assumed  num- 
ber of  revolutions,  its  required  horse-power,  and  the  quality  of  the 
fuel  to  be  used.  Compression  is  also  a  factor  to  be  considered 
in  a  nice  adjustment  of  the  details  for  the  required  power.  In 
Chapter  X  we  have  given  a  few  samples  of  practice  among  builders 
of  engines  as  to  size,  power,  and  speed,  and  a  table  of  sizes  of  the 
essential  parts  for  a  clearance  of  33  per  cent,  and  compression  of 
50  to  60  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  table  represents  the  actual 
or  brake  horse-power,  and  the  sizes  of  the  cylinders  and  speed  are 
a  mean,  as  in  ordinary  practice  for  stationary,  engines.  High- 
speed motors  are  a  specialty  and  require  some  experience  for  suc- 
cessful designing. 

The  diameter  and  stroke  of  a  proposed  design  must  be  derived 
from  some  assumed  mean  pressure  and  speed  for  the  relative  condi- 
tions of  impulse  for  either  of  the  cycles  contemplated.  The  factors 
of  fuel  power  and  compression  are  also  essential  elements  of  design 
in  construction  that  need  primary  consideration.  From  these  data 
the  indicated  horse-power  may  be  computed  and  the  actual  or  brake 
horse-power  obtained  from  some  known  mechanical  efficiency  of  this 
class  of  motors. 

From  the  many  sectional  and  detailed  illustrations  throughout 
this  work,  the  general  constructive  design  of  the  various  models 
of  the  two  types  of  motors  of  the  horizontal  and  vertical  styles,  and 
in  the  stationary  and  marine  class,  are  sufficiently  shown  as  a  guide 
for  the  draughtsman  and  amateur  of  constructive  ability;  and  to- 
gether with  the  computed  sizes  of  parts  formulated,  should  enable 
any  draughtsman  of  ordinary  experience  to  make  a  creditable  de- 
sign of  an  explosive  motor. 

In  Fig.  124  is  shown  the  German  method  of  making  the  cylinder 

167 


168 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


and  water-jacket  in  separate  castings;  the  jacket  being  made  an 
integral  part  of  the  bed-frame  and  bored  with  aligned  bearings  to 


FIG.  124.— The  cylinder. 


FIG.  125.— Gasket-joint. 


FIG.  126. — Plain  joint. 


FIG.  127.— Stuffing-box  joint. 


fit  their  counterparts  on  the  cylinder.  The  two  designs  for  bolting 
the  cylinder  and  water-jacketed  head  separately  to  the  jacket  are 
shown  in  Figs.  125  and  126.  In  one  a  groove  is  made  to  hold 
a  metallic  packing,  while  the  other  may  be  a  ground-joint  or 

plain  gasket. 

In  Fig.  127  are  given 
the  details  of  the  stuffing- 
box. 

By  this  arrangement 
the  cylinder  is  allowed  a 
movement  due  to  differ- 
ence of  temperature  be- 
tween the  cylinder  and 
jacket,  and  yet  makes  a 
rigid  connection  between 
the  cylinder  and  bed- 
frame  through  the  jacket. 
FIG.  128.— The  long  piston.  In  Fig.  128  is  illus- 


DETAILS  AND  PARTS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR       169 

trated  a  section  of  a  piston  of  German  type,  nearly  two  and  a 
quarter  times  its  diameter  in  length,  showing  the  German  practice 
in  regard  to  the  number  of  rings  and  their  disposition. 


FIG.  129. — Medium-length  piston  and  oiling  device. 

In  Fig.  129  is  given  another  piston  of  twice  its  diameter  in 
length,  and  in  Fig.  132  a  bushed  piston  of  one  and  a  half  times 
its  diameter  in  length,  one  and  a  half  diameters  for  the  length  of 
the  piston  being  the  average  of  American  practice. 

The  length  of  the  cylinder  must  include  the  assumed  length  for 
clearance,  less  an  allowance  for  protrusion  of  the  piston  at  the  end 
of  the  outward  stroke,  which  may  be  studied  from  an  examination 
of  many  sectional  views  of  engine  details  in  the  following  pages  of 
this  work. 


FIG.  130. — Section  of  short  piston. 

The  short  piston  in  Fig.  130  is  nearly  the  proportion  in  general 
use  in  the  United  States,  with  the  number  of  rings  varying  with 
different  builders. 


170 


GAS,  GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


REPLACING    A    PISTON 

The  following  plan  has  been  suggested  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Roberts 
for  easily  entering  a  piston  and  rings  into  a  cylinder :  Take  half  a 

dozen  or  more  strips  or  bands 
(S,  S,  Fig.  131),  the  thick- 
ness of  which  is  equal  to  one- 
half  the 
diameter 


difference    in    the 
between   the    bore 
of  the  cylinder  and  that  of 
the   counterbore.      Slip    the 
piston  in  part  way  and  then 


FIG.  131. — Replacing  a  piston. 

put  in  the  strips.  Bend  the  strips  outward,  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  forming  a  tapered  guide  which  will  gradually  close  the 
rings  as  the  piston  is  pushed  in.  In  case  there  is  a  port  leading 
into  the  counterbore  these  strips  will  also  prevent  the  rings  from 
jumping  into  the  port.  Almost  any  machinist  will  realize  that  this 
is  a  very  sure  and  efficient  method,  and  it  does  not  shove  the  edge  of 
the  rings  against  the  end  of  the  counterbore,  which  is  quite  often 
an  abrupt  shoulder  and  likely  to  require  much  pressure  to  push  the 
rings  past  the  shoulder  of  the  counterbore. 

The  number  of  piston-rings  varies  with  different  builders,  the 
Germans  using  the  larger  number.     For  small  engines,  three  rings 


FIG.  132. — Bushed  piston  and  oiling  device. 

are  sufficient,  while  four  are  used  on  medium-sized  pistons,  with 
sometimes  an  extra  ring  toward  the  open  end  of  the  piston. 

The  connecting  rod  should  always  have  an  adjustable  box  at 
the  crank  end  and  in  medium  and  large  engines  also   at   the 


DETAILS  AND  PARTS   OF   THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      171 

piston  end.     Very  small  engines  need  only  have  a  solid  eye  at  the 
piston  end,  bushed  or  not  as  judged  best. 


FIG.  133.— Bushed  piston-rod. 

In  Fig.  133  are  shown  the  details  of  a  bushed  piston-rod  much 
in  use,  and  in  Fig.  134  a  box-rod  with  a  strap  take-up  and  keys 
for  the  piston  end. 


FIG.  134. — Strap  take-up  piston-rod. 

A  novelty  in  the  make-up  of  large  vertical  motors  has  been 
adopted   by  Struther,  Wells  &  Company,  Warren,  Pa.,  in  their 


FIG.  135. — The  two-part  connecting  rod. 


"  Warren  Motor."     The  connecting  rods  are  made  in  two  parts,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  135,  joined  by  a  heavy  bolted  flange  near  the  centre 


172 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


of  the  rod,  which  allows  the  piston  to  be  taken  down  through  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  for  inspection  and  repairs  without  disturbing 


FIG.  136.— Piston-pin  oil-feed. 


FIG.  137. — The  crank  oiling  device. 


the  cylinder-head  and  valve  gear,  which  is  attached  to  the  cylinder- 
head. 

In  Fig.  136  is  shown  the  piston-pin  oiling  device  used  on  the 
engines  of  the  Capital  Engine  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

A  small  tube  B,  extending  from  the  oil-cup  C,  and  attached  to 


FIG.  138. — The  base  frame. 


the  oil-port  in  the  piston,  conveys  the  oil  to  a  recess  in  the  connect- 
ing-rod box  at  D.     The  recess  is  long  enough  to  receive  the  oil  in  all 


DETAILS  AND   PARTS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      173 


FIG.  139. — German  shaft  and  bearings. 

positions  of  the  connecting  rod.     The  sight-feed  oil-cup  at  0,  feed- 
ing both  the  piston  and  its  pin. 

Fig.  137  details  the  balanced  crank-shaft,  with  a  novel  method 
lor  oiling  the  crank-pin,  con- 
sisting of  a  disk  with  a  cavity 
to  receive  the  oil  which  is 
spread  to  the  outer  side  by 
the  centrifugal  force  of  revo- 
lution and  through  the  drilled 
passages  to  the  crank-pin 
box. 

The  proportions  are  to  a 

scale    in  parts  of    the  crank-  FlG'  I40--Fastenings  of  the  crank 

counter-balance. 

pin  diameter. 

The  base  frame  as  usually  made  with  flange-bolted  cylinders  is 
shown  in  Fig.  138,  but  its  design  is  illustrated,  with  many  varia- 


-A 

r- 

A 

If 

FIG.  141. — Counter-balanced  crank,  bolts  or  stud-bolts  and  nuts  for  each  weight. 


174 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


tions  to  suit  special  conditions,  in  the  general  views  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages. 

In  Fig.  139  is  delineated  the  crank-shaft  of  the  larger  German 

motors  with  an  outboard- 
bearing  and  enlarged  shaft 
diameter  for  the  safer  key- 
ing of  the  fly-wheel.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  left- 
hand  end  of  the  shaft  has 
its  size  reduced  to  accom- 
modate the  desired  small 
size  of  the  spiral  gear.  All 
parts  of  this  cut  are  made 
to  a  scale  derived  from  the 
diameter  of  the  main  jour- 
nal as  a  unit. 

It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  shoulders  of  the  jour- 
nals are  lipped  in  order  to 
divert  the  excess  of  oil  into  the  ring  oil-reservoirs, 

In  Fig.  140  is  shown  the  method  of  fastening  the  counterbalance 
to  the  crank  by  a  short  stud-bolt,  with  the  nut  in  a  mortise  in  the 
side  of  the  counterbalance.  The  centrifugal  strain  is  countered  by 
the  diagonal  keys  in  the  side-bearing. 

Fig.  141  shows  the  ordinary  method  of  fastening  the  counter- 


FIG.  142. — Fly-wheel  of  approved  design. 


FIG.  143. — The  plain  single  crank. 

balance  weights  to  the  crank :  a  close  fit  and  two  strong  tap-bolts 
or  stud-bolts  and  nuts  for  each  weight, 

In  Fig.  142  is  shown  the  design  of  a  fly-wheel  of  approved  form. 

The  curved  side  of  the  spokes  should  turn  forward  as  shown  by 


DETAILS  AND   PARTS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      175 

the  arrows,  which  produces  compression  of  the  spokes  at  the  mo- 
ment of  impulse  and  thus  avoids  possibility  of  fracture. 

This  form  is  also  safest  in  casting,  as  it  avoids  fracture  by 
shrinkage.  The  models  of  straight-arm  fly-wheels  are  illustrated 
further  on  ;  for  fly-wheel  dimensions  see  Chapter  X. 


FIG.  144. — Westinghouse  three-throw  crank. 

In  Fig.  143  is  shown  the  model  of  the  plain  single-crank  shaft  in 
general  use. 

In  Fig.  144  is  shown  the  three-throw  crank-shaft  of  the  West- 
inghouse Machine  Company,  with  their  method  of  balancing  by 
screwing  the  balance-blocks  to  the  crank-arms. 

In  Fig.  145  are  represented  a  German  type  and  horizontal  hous- 
ings, with  the  method  of  keying  the  crank-counterweight  in  ad- 
dition to  the  usual  stud-bolts  and  nuts. 


FIG.  145. — Crank-shaft  and  housings. 

In  Fig.  146  are  llustrated  a  longitudinal  and  a  cross  section 
of  a  German  journal-bearing  with  a  double-ring  self-oiler. 

The  cuts  represent  nearly  the  exact  proportions,  using  the 
journal-shaft  diameter  as  a  unit. 


176 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


In  Fig.  147  is  the  sectional  design  of  a  single-ring  oiling  device 
of  German  design. 

The  pillow-block  of  an  explosive  motor  is  deserving  of  special 


FIG.  146. — Horizontal  self-oiling  journal-box. 

care  in  its  design,  in  order  to  withstand  the  shock  of  explosion  with- 
out injury  to  itself  or  the  crank-shaft.     A  perfect  journal  fit  will 

often  save  the  breaking 
of  a  crank. 

In  Fig.  148  is  de- 
tailed a  half-section  of 
a  main  journal-box  of 
approved  design.  The 
composition  box  has  a 
stop-rib  to  keep  it  from 
turning.  The  length 
of  the  journal- bear  ing 
should  be  twice  the  di- 
ameter of  the  crank- 
pin. 

The  proportions  in 
the  cut  are  a  fair  rep- 
resentation with  the 
journal-shaft  diameter 
as  a  unit.  Also  see 
illustrations  of  motor 

FIG.  147. — Single-ring  self-oiling  journal-box.        details   further  on. 


DETAILS   AND  PARTS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR       177 

We  illustrate  both  the  horizontal  and  angular  style  of  journal- 
box  housings,  as  both  are  in  general  use.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
angular  housing  is  the  least  complex  and  most  reliable  for  strength 
and  wear  to  sustain  the  one-direction  shock  of  explosion. 

One  of  the  fine  points  in  fitting  the  main  journal-boxes  for 
perfect  work  is  to  give  the  ends  a  perfect  bearing,  so  that  they 
may  not  sag  at  the  inner  end  by  the  explosive  blows  and  elas- 
ticity of  the  shaft,  and  thus  extend  the  length  of  the  shaft  be- 
tween its  actual  bear- 
ings ;  this  condition 
being  too  often  neg- 
lected, resulting  in 
the  mystery  of  a 
broken  shaft. 

Boring  the  hous- 
ings and  turning  the 
bored  boxes  on  the 
outside  with  keys  to 
hold  them  in  place 
is  probably  the  best 
practice. 

There  is  a  differ- 


FIG.  148. — Main  journal-bearing. 


ence  of  opinion  among  designers  and  builders  of  explosive  motors 
in  regard  to  the  kind  of  metal  or  alloys  for  the  journal-boxes, 
each  advocating  some  special  composition  as  the  best:  phosphor 
bronze,  Tobin  bronze,  aluminum  bronze,  tin-copper  bronze,  and 
Babbitt  metal  being  in  use.  For  low-compression  motors  the 
phosphor  and  Tobin  bronzes  give  good  results.  Babbitt  metal  is 
a  cheap  substitute  in  fitting  ;  but  the  hard  alloy  is  weak  and 
liable  to  crack  under  the  heavy  blows  of  explosion,  and  the  soft 
alloys  are  still  weaker  and  liable  to  spread.  For  high-compression 
motors  the  ten  per  cent,  alloy  of  aluminum  and  copper  (aluminum 
bronze)  and  those  of  tin  and  copper  are  tough  and  resisting, 
wearing  well.  Probably  there  is  nothing  better  than  aluminum 
bronze  for  hard  work. 


CHAPTER    XV 

EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   DIMENSIONS 

THE  diameter  of  the  cylinder  of  an  explosive  motor  and  its  ini- 
tial pressure  are  the  safest  bases  from  which  to  compute  the  di- 
mensions of  all  the  parts  subject  to  strain  by  the  action  of  the  motor. 

As  compression  of  the  explosive  charge  has  a  greatly  controlling 
influence  on  the  initial  explosive  pressure,  it  should  be  made  an  ex- 
ponent in  every  formula  for  strength  against  the  strains  of  ex- 
plosive pressure. 

In  a  cylinder,  as  well  as  in  other  parts,  the  dimensions  given  in 
the  formulas  are  for  finished  sizes;  for  cylinders,  ample  allowance 
should  be  made  in  the  casting  for  boring. 

Any  simple  proportion  of  diameter  to  thickness  of  cylinder  wall, 
while  giving  the  relative  strain  on  different-sized  cylinders,  does  not 
satisfy  the  practical  condition  of  manufacture;  which,  to  be  safe  and 
practicable  on  a  basis  of  five  times  the  extreme  pressure,  would  be 
practically  too  thin  for  small  cylinders  and  too  thick  for  the  larger 
size. 

The  tendency  of  constructive  design  at  the  present  time  is 
toward  economy  of  material  in  general  terms  and  the  special  re- 
quirement of  lightness  for  marine  and  automobile  service. 

The  strains  on  the  various  parts  of  a  motor  most  to  be  consid- 
ered are  derived  from  the  explosive  moment,  which  are  the  pres- 
sures and  strains  due  to  the  most  intense  part  of  the  motor's  work. 

The  ultimate  or  breaking  resistance  of  the  material  of  construc- 
tion of  the  quality  suitable  for  such  work,  is  for  cast  iron  suitable  for 
cylinders— from  18,000  to  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  for  which 
one-sixth,  3,000  pounds,  is  a  safe  factor  or  margin  for  computing 
the  thickness  of  cylinder  walls  subject  to  an  extreme  pressure  of  500 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Then  for  obtaining  the  least  safe  thick- 
ness of  cylinder  wall,  under  the  consideration  of  strength  alone,  the 
safe-resisting  thickness  will  be  derived  from  the  extreme  or  maximum 
178 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  DIMENSIONS  179 

pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  multiplied  by  one-half  the  dia- 
meter of  the  cylinder  in  inches. 

D  stress 

PX~r  =  stress,  and  ; — » -r  =  thickness  in  inches  or 

2  factor  of  strength 

decimals. 

For  example,  a  10-inch  cylinder  and  maximum  pressure  of  500 

pounds  with  a  safe  factor  of  3,000  pounds.     500  X~^  =  2,500,  and 

2  5Q0 

^  =  .833  inch  thick,  to  which  should  be  added  enough  to  meet 
o,UUU 

the  contingencies  of  unequal  thickness  in  setting  the  core  and  for 
boring  in  the  making  of  the  pattern. 

The  next  vital  point  from  which  trouble  may  arise,  is  the  com- 
pression-strain on  the  piston-rod,  boxes,  pin,  and  crank-shaft  at  the 
moment  of  explosion. 

The  tortional  strain  on  the  crank-shaft  does  not  reach  its  maxi- 
mum effect  until  the  piston  pressure  has  fallen  to  one-half  the  ini- 
tial pressure,  and  on  this  only  depends  the  diameter  of  the  main 
journals  to  resist  torsion  due  to  the  fly-wheel  resistance.  The  di- 
mensions of  these  parts  have  been  developed  both  theoretically  and 
by  practice,  from  which  these  formulas  have  been  derived. 

The  author  finds  that  the  square  root  of  the  diameter  in  inches, 

divided  by  5,  — r — ,  gives  a  much  more  satisfactory  thickness  of 
o 

cylinder  wall  for  low  compression,  say  40  pounds  and  under.  For 
higher  compression,  say  up  to  100  pounds,  a  compression  exponent 
should  be  added  to  the  above  formula,  for  which  we  propose 

4/  D      /  |/  D     cqmpA 

-JLz — 4  I  —7-  X    OKrf  I  as  giving  a  satisfactory  safe  thickness  for 
o          \    o  ^ou   j 

high- compression  cylinder  walls  at  the  clearance  end  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  crank  end  may  be  made  thinner  when  the  cylinder  is 
supported  by  the  jacket  casting,  or  should  have  its  thickness 
uniform  when  it  is  to  be  bolted  to  the  frame  with  a  flange. 

By  this  formula  a  low-compression  4-inch  cylinder  wall  may  be 
.4  inches  thick,  and  for  high  compression  .56  inches.  This  grada- 
tion will  give  a  10-inch  cylinder  .63-inch  and  .87-inch  wall,  and  for  a 


180  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

16-inch  cylinder  .89  and  1.27  inches  respectively  for  low  and  high 
compression. 

For  the  water  space,  the  thickness  is  a  matter  of  expertness  in 
making  cores  that  will  stand  the  strain  of  moulding  and  casting; 
but  on  general  principles  the  thickness  of  the  water  space  should 
equal  the  thickness  of  the  cylinder  wall;  except  when  the  jacket  is 
made  in  a  separate  piece,  when  the  water  space  may  be  made  to  suit 
the  convenience  of  construction. 

The  thickness  of  the  water-jacket  wall  with  a  cored  water  space 
may  be  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  cylinder  wall,  depending  upon 
the  method  of  fastening  the  cylinder  to  the  bed-frame;  whether 
flanged  on  the  head  or  with  side-flanges  on  the  jacket. 

These  are  matters  of  study,  shown  in  the  detail  illustrations 
throughout  this  work. 

The  sizes  of  valve-aperture  are  a  ratio  of  the  volume  and  piston 
speed  for  the  best  effect  and  we  find  that  the  square  root  of  the 
cylinder  diameter  in  inches,  multiplied  by  the  piston  speed  in  feet 

4/D  S 
per  minute,  the  product  divided  by  600  —  Ann    =  d,  gives  a  very 


satisfactory  size  for  the  inlet-valve  aperture.  The  exhaust-valve 
should  be  one-fifth  larger  in  diameter.  This  is  suitable  for  motors 
at  ordinary  speeds,  to  have  the  valves  fitted  in  the  head  of  the 
cylinder;  but  for  high-speed  motors,  up  to  1,000  or  more  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  side-chambers  may  be  made  available  for 
larger  valves. 

The  form  of  valve  seats,  their  angle  and  width,  with  the  va- 
riations in  practice,  are  fully  shown  by  the  detailed  illustrations 
throughout  this  work,  and  in  the  section  on  valves  and  their  design. 

The  dimension  design  of  pistons  varies  considerably  in  European 
and  American  practice;  but  on  general  principles  lightness,  with  due 
regard  to  resistance  to  the  impact  of  explosion  on  the  piston-head, 
and  to  lessen  the  balancing  weight,  is  most  desirable. 

For  pistons  of  8  inches  diameter  and  under,  there  need  be  no 
bracing  ribs  at  the  back  of  the  head,  while  for  larger  sizes  the  ribs 
strengthen  a  comparatively  thin  head  and  increase  the  cooling 
effect  from  air  circulation  within  the  piston.  For  the  cylindrical 
shells  of  all  sizes  up  to  20  inches  diameter,  the  thickness  of  the  metal 
under  the  ring-grooves  and  beyond  the  pin-bosses  may  conform  to 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  DIMENSIONS  181 


the  formula      —  for  shell-  thickness  and  ~~  for  the  heads.     The 

pin-bosses  should  have  a  proportion  for  the  strain  on  the  forward 
side  with  a  sub-boss  for  the  set-screws.  The  number  of  rings  varies 
somewhat  among  builders  of  motors;  but  good  practice  seems  to 
indicate  three  rings  on  pistons  up  to  6  inches  diameter  and  four 
to  five  on  the  larger  diameters.  A  supplementary  ring  near  the 
open  end  of  the  piston  is  not  recommended  as  of  any  value. 

The  bearing  length  of  piston-pins  varies  somewhat  among  build- 
ers in  Europe  and  the  United  States  from  1  j  to  twice  their  diameter. 
One  and  a  half  diameters  for  the  bearing  length  is  a  good  propor- 
tion, and  for  this  proportion  the  formula  for  the  diameter  may  be 

I/  D  X  1  -n     makes  a  fair  ratio  for  different  cylinder-diameters  in 
lou 

inches  to  meet  the  difference  in  extreme  explosive  pressures  due  to 
difference  in  compression. 

The  length  of  the  connecting  rod  of  an  explosive  motor  varies 
from  two  to  three  times  the  length  of  the  stroke;  the  longer  rods 
being  better  adapted  to  the  horizontal  model. 

The  diameter  of  a  round  connecting  rod  should  be  at  its  largest 
part  a  slight  swell  from  the  crank  end  for  one-third  its  length  and 
with  a  gradual  taper  to  the  piston  end,  to  four-fifths  of  the  largest 

diameter.  For  the  largest  diameter  the  formula  ~  —  X  \  /  -  ^E*  ~   ' 

^        V      75 

gives  a  safe  size  for  explosive  pressure. 

The  crank-shaft  requires  much  consideration  from  the  great 
strain  that  it  sustains  at  the  moment  of  explosion,  when  the  shaft 
and  crank-pin  are  on  the  centre  line  and  at  that  moment  subject  to 
the  greatest  strain.  The  strain  is  at  first  a  bending  one,  changing 
to  a  tortional  one  as  the  crank  angle  increases.  The  basis  of  a  for- 
mula is  from  the  cube  root  of  the  square  of  the  diameter  multiplied 
by  the  compression  and  their  product  divided  by  100  gives  good 
proportions  for  steel  shafts  with  strong  fuel-pressure  in  inches  of 

diameter.    D  =  diameter  of  Cylinder.    VY  - 

V  J-UU 

The  journals  should  be  twice  their  diameter  in  length  and  the 
diameter  of  the  crank-pin  should  be  from  12  to  15  per  cent,  larger 


182  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

than  the  main  journals  for  equivalent  strength  to  resist  the  initial 
blow  of  explosion.  The  width  of  the  crank-arm  should  be  1.33 
times  the  diameter  of  the  crank-pin,  and  its  thickness  .7  the  crank- 
pin  diameter. 

The  form  of  the  frame  or  engine-base  is  so  varied  among  builders 
that  we  can  only  advise  following  the  designs  illustrated  throughout 
this  work,  with  a  main  view  to  a  safe  margin  of  strength  due  to  the 
assumed  pressures  on  the  piston  in  the  top  member  of  the  frame. 
The  other  parts  to  conform  to  lightness  and  constructive  effect. 

The  method  of  counterbalancing  the  reciprocal  and  revolving 
parts  of  a  motor,  that  contribute  to  its  vibration  is  still  a  mooted 
point  among  designers  of  motor-motion,  without  arriving  at  a 
possible  balance  system  for  both  motions. 

As  these  conditions  of  reciprocating  combined  with  circular 
motion  cannot  be  made  to  agree,  a  mean  equalization  of  the  two 
forces  seems  the  only  possible  solution. 

The  following  formula  for  the  weight  of  a  counterbalance  of  the 
form  in  Fig.  141,  bolted  to  the  crank,  is  an  approximation  for  equal- 

p_i_r»  T> 

izing    the    reciprocating    and  revolving    parts  — ^~X— =  W,   in 

z         r 

which  P=  weight  of  piston  and  rod;  C,  weight  of  crank  and  J  of 
rod,  crank-end  weight;  R,  radius  of  crank  in  inches;  r,  radius  of 
centre  of  gravity  of  counterweight. 

The  fly-wheel  of  an  explosive  motor  is  a  matter  of  much  consid- 
eration in  regard  to  its  weight  and  diameter  for  the  many  conditions 
for  its  application  to  the  speed-control  of  the  motor-impulse.  On 
general  principles,  a  four-cycle  motor  requires  more  fly-wheel  con- 
trol than  the  two-cycle  type.  A  single  cylinder  of  either  type 
more  than  motors  of  two,  three,  or  four  cylinders. 

Again,  slow-speed  motors  of  any  type  or  number  of  cylinders 
require  more  fly-wheel  control  than  high-speed  motors.  A  high- 
compression  motor  more  than  one  of  low  compression;  so  that  the 
problem  becomes  a  complex  one  in  order  to  exactly  meet  every 
condition  of  motor  service  for  stationary,  marine,  and  vehicle  pro- 
pulsion. 

For  stationary  power,  a  fly-wheel  diameter  of  four  times  the 
stroke  of  the  piston  is  the  usual  practice.  For  marine  and  automo- 
bile service  the  fly-wheel  diameter  should  be  much  smaller  to  meet 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  DIMENSIONS  183 

the  conditions  of  boat  and  vehicle  construction  with  their  weight 
increased  to  the  motor  requirement. 

T       TT       T> 

The  formula  — ! — : — 77  X  34,000  gives  a  good  average  weight  of 

the  fly-wheel  rim  for  diameters  of  four  times  the  piston-stroke. 

The  diameter  of  a  fly-wheel  hub  should  be  2J  times  the  diameter 
of  the  shaft;  the  spoke-web,  3J  times  shaft  diameter.  The  spokes 
should  taper  slightly  from  web  to  rim,  and  each  have  a  mean  area  of 
§  the  shaft  area  at  the  web.  A  study  of  details  illustrated  in  this 
work  will  suggest  the  best  forms  of  rims  and  other  parts  from  the 
practice  of  builders. 

WORM-GEAR 

The  reducing  gear  of  the  worm-gear  type  may  be  made  an  exact 
relation  for  difference  of  speed,  which  for  the  four  cycle  explosive- 
motor  valve  gear  should  be  two  revolutions  of 
the  crank-shaft  to  one  revolution  of  the  valve- 
shaft.  As  the  relative  pitch  diameters  of  the 
gears  cannot  always  be  made  the  same,  some 
fixed  relative  diameter  must  be  made  and  the 
spiral  angle  of  their  teeth  cut  to  meet  the 
required  speed  relation;  or  with  a  fixed  angle 
of  the  teeth,  the  pitch  diameters  must  be  made 
to  meet  the  required  speed  relation.  Thus  if 
the  spiral  angles  of  two  matched  gears  are  FIG.  149.— Theworm- 
the  same  the  velocity  ratio  will  be  inversely 
as  the  pitch  diameters;  but  if  the  spiral  angles  are  not  equal, 
as  in  the  usual  gas-engine  gears,  the  number  of  teeth  per  inch  of 
pitch  diameter  will  vary  as  the  cosine  of  their  angles.  In  any 
case  the  velocity  ratio  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  teeth  and 
their  spiral  angle,  as  expressed  in  the  following  proportion :  v,  the 
velocity  of  the  small  gear,  is  to  V,  the  velocity  of  the  large  gear, 
as  D;  the  pitch  diameter  of  the  larger,  multiplied  by  the  cosine 
of  its  spiral  angle,  is  to  d,  the  pitch  diameter  of  the  smaller,  mul- 
tiplied by  the  cosine  of  its  spiral  angle. 

Then,  for  example,  a  shaft  spiral  gear  of  twice  the  pitch  diam- 
eter of  the  cam-shaft  gear  and  running  at  twice  its  speed,  their  rel- 


184  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

ative  teeth  spiral  angles  will  be  2  X  2  =  4,  and  for  the  proper 

oomTiP* 

meshing  of  their  teeth,  requires  that  any  — —  that  will  equal  its 

sine,  will  represent  the  proper  angle  of  the  teeth  of  the  driving  gear 
with  the  plane  of  its  motion;  while  the  angle  of  the  driven  gear- 
teeth  will  be  the  cosine  of  the  plane  of  motion  of  the  driven  gear. 
By  comparison  of  sines  and  cosines  as  tabulated,  we  find  that  a 

cosine 

— —  is  equal  to  the  sine  of  14°  2',  and  the  cosine  75°  58',  which 

represents  the  relative  angles  of  the  teeth  of  the  driver  and  driven 
gear  with  their  planes  of  motion  in  the  above  case. 

For  spiral  gears  of  equal  diameter  for  velocities  of  2  to  1  to 
match,  with  the  shafts  at  right  angles,  the  engine- 
shaft  gear  should  have  the  lesser  angle  and  the 
gear  on  the  reducing  or  secondary  shaft  should 
have  the  greater  angle  as  referred  to  their  planes 
of  motion  respectively.  The  cosines  of  these 
angles  must  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other 
on  the  pitch  line  as  their  velocities,  and  by  in- 
spection of  a  table  of  sines  and  cosines  this  re- 
lation is  easily  found;  for  example,  in  follow- 
FIG.  150.— Spiral  jng  ajong  ^he  columns  Of  sines  and  cosines  we 

find  .44724  is  as  2  to  1  to  .89448,  which  agrees 
nearly  to  26°  34'  and  63°  26',  the  respective  angles  of  the  teeth 
with  their  planes  of  motion  for  equal-sized  gears;  their  sum  being 
equal  to  90°. 

VALVES    AND    THEIR    DESIGN 

The  general  designs  of  explosive  motors,  so  far  as  their  power 
moving  parts  are  concerned,  are  so  much'  alike  that,  excepting 
their  ignition  devices,  any  explosive  motor  may  be  made  inter- 
changeable or  readily  convertible  to  the  use  of  either  of  the  ex- 
plosive materials  for  power,  for  each  requires  an  equal  strength 
in  all  the  parts  of  the  motor  as  well  as  an  equal  treatment  in 
the  regulation  of  cylinder  temperature. 

The  value  of  the  materials  of  explosive  power  has  been  as 
fully  discussed  under  the  head  of  " materials  of  power"  as  is  con- 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  DIMENSIONS 


185 


sistent  with  our  present  knowledge  of  the  experimental  details  in 
regard  to  the  explosive  values  of  such  materials.  Their  study 
becomes  an  essential  feature  in  motor  design,  especially  in  regard 
to  cylinder  volume  to  meet  specified  power. 

The  details  of  valve  gear  may  be  made  variable  to  meet  the 
fancy  of  designers  or  their  judgment  of  fitness;  but  there  are  a 


FIG.  151. — Steel  drop-forgings. 

few  points  in  their  operating  principle  which  must  be  made  to  meet 
the  requirements  not  only  of  each  form  of  explosive  element  to  be 
used,  but  also  of  the  varied  values  of  gases  in  gas-engines,  from 
acetylene  to  producer  and  blast-furnace  gas,  and  of  the  volatility 
of  the  variable  grades  of  gasoline,  kerosene,  and  the  cruder  oils,  and 
which  dominate  the  sizes  and  relative  proportions  of  the  inlet  and 
exhaust-valves. 

The  forms  of  the  faces  and  seats  of  valves  seem  to  have  been 
varied  to  meet  the  fancy  of  designers  in  a  great  measure,  and  even 
the  crudity  of  a  spindle  riveted  to  the  valve  disk  has  been  used 
and  published  as  a  desirable  makeshift.  The  flat-faced  valve  is 
also  in  use,  but  from  the  author's  experience  is  unreliable  and  makes 
an  imperfect  seat  by  use.  Conical-seated  valves  with  faces  at  from 
thirty-five  to  forty-five  degrees  from  the  axis  of  the  spindle  are  giv- 
ing good  service.  A  flatter  cone  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  degrees  is  in 
use  with  apparent  wearable  properties  and  with  slightly  less  lift  for 
its  full  area  than  with  the  deeper-seated  valves.  A  fifty-degree 
angle  is  recommended  for  high-speed  motors. 

Spindle-valves  with  stems  one-fifth  to  one-quarter  the  outside 
diameter  of  the  valves,  well  filleted  under  the  disks,  give  general 


186  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

satisfaction  for  ordinary  speeds;  but  for  very  high-speed  motors 
the  valve  stems  should  be  somewhat  larger.  The  general  valve 
arrangements  are  well  shown  in  their  various  modifications  as  illus- 
trated in  this  work. 

The  relative  size  of  these  valves  has  been  a  subject  of  inquiry 
and  discussion,  with  so  far  no  fixed  general  rule  applicable  to  the 
required  conditions  of  each  element.  Some  designated  speed 
should  first  be  assigned  for  any  given-sized  cylinder  volume,  from 
which  the  size  of  the  valves  may  be  computed  for  the  full  flow  of 
the  inlet  charge  and  for  the  discharge  of  the  exhaust  without  undue 
back-pressure  during  the  times  of  the  inlet  and  exhaust-strokes. 
This  means  larger  valves  for  high-speed  than  for  low-speed 
motors — a  practice  too  often  ignored,  to  the  detriment  of  motor 
efficiency,  by  making  these  valves  too  small  for  the  motor's 
best  work;  while  if  made  to  meet  the  requirements  for  highest 
speed  capacity  their  efficiency  action  will  be  best  for  all  lower 
speeds.  This  should  be  made  a  study  with  the  designers  of  ex- 
plosive motors. 

The  present  practice  with  builders  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the 
valves  seems  to  vary  the  extreme  diameter  of  the  exhaust-valve 
from  a  quarter  to  four-tenths  of  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  and 
the  charging  valve  a  little  less,  sometimes  but  one-fifth  of  the 
diameter  of  the  cylinder. 

Indicator  cards  taken  from  motors  with  small  valves,  if  properly 
done,  plainly  show  the  effect  of  back-pressure  from  both  the  ex- 
haust and  charging  strokes.  Good  practice  suggests  the  larger 
valves  with  full  lift  of  one-quarter  their  diameter  for  developing 
the  full  power  of  the  motor. 

The  width  of  the  valve  contact-seat  has  been  the  cause  of  much 
trouble  with  valve  action  by  the  mistaken  judgment  of  designers — 
that  great  width  of  contact  adds  to  tightness  and  wear  of  the  valve 
and  seat.  Practically  this  is  an  error  that  should  only  be  tolerated 
with  inlet-valves  having  fuel  feed  through  holes  or  channels  in  the 
seats.  The  width  of  bearing  on  inlet  and  exhaust-valves  should 
have  no  more  than  one-eighth  of  their  diameter. 

The  conical  bearings  should  also  be  the  limit  of  inside  and 
outside  diameter  for  valve  and  seat. 

The  best  material  from  experience  is  solid  valves  of  mild  cast 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  DIMENSIONS  187 

steel,  " machinery-steel"  grade;  of  which  the  drop-forgings  (Fig. 
151)  are  good  examples;  the  tips  to  be  cut  off  in  finishing. 

There  are  differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  methods  of 
opening  the  inlet-valve,  the  " suction  or  vacuum/7  and  the  "me- 
chanical-lift/' of  which  both  are  in  use,  the  principal  difference 
visible  turning  on  the  point  of  simplicity  and  complexibility  in 
valve-gear  construction.  Theory,  as  well  as  practice,  places  the  per- 
centage of  efficiency  in  favor  of  the  "  mechanical-lift." 

With  the  suction-lift  the  piston  must  travel  a  certain  distance  in 
the  cylinder  to  create  a  vacuum  strong  enough  to  act  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  valve  to  lift  it,  and  overcome  the  tension  of  the  light 
spring  that  is  acting  against  it  to  cause  it  to  return  to  its  seat 
quickly.  The  tendency  of  the  suction-valve  is  always  to  return  and 
remain  on  its  seat,  and  it  is  only  opposed  from  doing  so  as  long  as 
the  vacuum  in  the  cylinder  is  strong  enough  to  hold  it  therefrom. 
Thus  the  valve  chatters  as  it  remains  in  space  trying  to  respond  to 
the  summons  of  both  agencies,  the  spring  and  the  vacuum.  While 
so  doing  it  retards  the  inflow  of  mixture  to  the  cylinder.  If  the 
spring  has  too  great  a  tension  the  vacuum  cannot  properly  lift  it, 
and  the  cylinder  is  deprived  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  mixture.  If 
the  tension  is  too  weak  then  the  valve  does  not  seat  quickly  enough, 
and  part  of  the  charge  drawn  in  is  forced  back  again  through  the 
inlet  until  the  valve  has  made  a  proper  seating,  with  the  possibility 
of  back-fire.  Thus  can  be  seen  the  value  of  a  spring  possessing  the 
proper  tension.  Another  thing  that  can  be  looked  for  is  that  a 
spring,  when  new  and  possessing  the  proper  tension,  will,  in  the 
course  of  constant  use,  lose  some  of  its  tension  and  change  the  re- 
sults. The  mechanically  operated  valve  possesses  a  superiority 
over  the  suction  type  in  several  ways,  and  the  additional  expense 
and  complication  of  operating  an  intake-valve  is  not  worthy  of  men- 
tion. With  a  mechanically  operated  valve  the  necessity  of  having 
the  spring  tension  to  a  certain  point  is  obviated.  But  the  spring 
should  be  strong  enough  in  tension  so  as  to  always  ride  the  cam 
that  lifts  it,  but  not  too  strong,  to  make  working  on  the  mechanical 
parts  too  severe.  A  motor  with  a  mechanically  operated  valve  will 
start  more  easily  and  is  more  sure  of  starting  than  the  suction-lift, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  the  cam,  being  timed  properly,  will  open 
the  valve  immediately  as  the  piston  starts  on  its  suction-stroke  and 


188  GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

the  vacuum  immediately  acts  on  the  vapor  without  any  extra  duty 
to  perform  or  obstructions  in  the  way  to  give  free  access  to  a  full 
and  uniform  charge. 

ROTARY  VALVES  FOR  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS 

The  slide-valve  having  passed  its  trial  in  the  early  form  of  the 
explosive  motor,  yielded  its  place  from  its  mechanical  defects  and 
the  progressive  change  in  the  manner  of  ignition  to  the  poppet 
type.  The  flame  ignition  having  been  entirely  superseded  by  the 
hot-tube  and  electric  ignition,  has  left  the  valve  question  to  be 
solved  upon  its  merits  alone.  A  sliding  or  rotating  valve  seems  to 
work  well  in  a  steam-engine,  where  the  steam  is  in  part  a  lubricator 
and  clean  from  grit  or  abrading  material;  but  the  sliding  principle 
seems  to  have  failed  in  fulfilling  expectation  and  it  is  to  be  seen 
whether  the  rotary  valve  will  survive  its  initial  trials. 

A  balanced  rotary  valve  has  been  lately  brought  into  use  by 
Mr.  Edward  Butler,  of  Gleneldon  Road,  London,  England,  which 
controls  both  the  induction  and  exhaust,  and  so  arranged  in  the  de- 
sign as  to  control  two  or  three  cylinders  and  has  been  applied  with 
success  to  a  700-horse-power  double-acting  gas-engine ;  a  35-horse- 
power  single-acting;  a  three-cylinder  engine  with  a  single  valve  and 
a  tricycle.  The  valve  is  water-cooled  by  a  jacket  and  in  the  double- 
acting  engine  the  piston  is  cooled  by  water  circulation  through  the 
piston-rods;  the  stuffing-boxes  being  also  water-jacketed. 

We  await  the  success  of  the  continued  trial  of  the  rotary  valve. 

MOTOR-CYCLES 

The  cyclical  succession  of  operations,  crank  angles,  and  piston 
positions  for  the  crank  angle  of  each  phase  of  the  action  of  a  four- 
cycle motor  is  shown  in  Fig.  152. 

Commencing  with  the  inner  circle,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  charg- 
ing may  commence  just  before  the  crank  reaches  the  dead  centre 
owing  to  the  momentum  of  the  exhaust  just  before  the  piston  stops; 
resulting  in  an  extension  of  the  charging  to  a  point  beyond  the  out- 
ward dead  centre.  The  momentum  of  the  charge  through  the  inlet- 
valve  and  the  compression  through  the  balance  of  the  return-stroke 
are  shown  on  the  diagram;  then  ignition  at  any  designated  point 


EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR  DIMENSIONS 


189 


just  before,  at,  or  just  after  the  dead  point  of  the  stroke.  The  ex- 
plosive impulse  in  the  outward  stroke  to  a  designated  point  for  the 
exhaust-valve  to  open  and  exhausting  to  near  the  end  of  the  re- 
turn-stroke at  which  point  the  exhaust-valve  closes  by  its  spring 
pressure,  just  before 
the  crank  reaches 
the  dead  centre,  are 
also  shown  in  the 
outer  circle. 

The  crank  should 
move  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrow 
and  by  withholding 
the  closure  of  the  ex- 
haust-valve mechan- 
ically, a  scavenging 
effect  may  be  had 
by  the  momentum 

of  the  exhaust  in  its 

r  IG.  152. — Cyclic  phases  of  a  4-cycle  motor. 

pipe-passage. 

The  diagram  is  an  example  that  may  be  changed  to  suit  any 
required  conditions,  so  as  to  show  at  a  glance  the  piston  positions 
and  relative  crank  angles. 


TIMING  VALV 
OPE 


IR  VALVE 
CLOSES 


CAM    DESIGN 

The  designing  of  explosive-motor  cams,  by  many  considered  a 
difficult  problem,  can  be  worked  out  on  the  drawing-board  with 
accuracy  when  the  conditions  of  opening  and  closing  time  are 
given :  For  an  exhaust-valve  cam  for  a  high-speed  motor,  assum- 
ing to  open  at  40°  crank  motion  above  the  terminal  of  the  im- 
pulse-stroke and  closing  at  10°  past  the  rear  centre,  as  shown  in 
the  motion  diagram  (Fig.  152). 

Thus  the  valve  is  held  open  through  230°  of  the  crank's  revo- 
lution and  therefore  through  1159  of  the  cam-shaft's  revolution. 
The  cam  proper  is  made  up  of  two  parts — one  portion,  B  M  A  (Fig. 
154),  concentric,  and  another  portion,  G  E  K,  eccentric  to  the  shaft. 
For  convenience  we  will  consider  the  cam  to  be  standing  still  and 


190 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


the  cam-roller  to  travel  around  the  cam-counter  clockwise — i.  e., 
from  A  toward  B. 

From  centre  0,  lay  off  a  circle  ABM  equal  in  diameter  to  the 
concentric  portion  of  the  cam.  Then  from  0  lay  off  0  A  and  0  B 
115°  apart.  0  A  is  the  line  on  which  the  valve  begins  to  open,  and 
0  B  the  line  on  which  it  is  just  closed.  Lay  off  C  D  equal  to  the 
amount  allowed  for  lost  motion  before  the  valve  begins  to  open,  and 
D  E  equal  to  the  amount  of  the  opening  of  the  valve.  With  the 
centre  0  draw  arcs  of  circles  through  D  and  E,  respectively ;  E 
will  be  on  the  outer  extremity  of  the  cam.  On  0  A  and  0  B,  pro- 


FIG.  153.  FIG.  154. 

Exhaust-cam  design. 

duced,  lay  off  circles  0'  F  N  and  0"  J  N'  equal  in  diameter  to  the 
cam-roller  and  tangent  to  the  arc  F  D  J.  Draw  G  H  tangent  to 
both  circles  ABM  and  0'  F  N;  similarly  K  I  tangent  to  both  ABM 
and  0"  J  N'.  This  gives  us  the  bounding  lines  of  the  eccentric  por- 
tion, G  E  K,  of  the  cam.  The  corners  at  H  and  I  should  be  rounded 
off  with  radius  R  to  suit  the  judgment  of  the  designer. 

For  medium-speed  motors  the  crank-angle  opening  of  the  ex- 
haust may  be  made  much  less  than  the  extreme  figures  above  named 
and  so  varied  for  assumed  speeds  to  as  low  as  25°  crank-angle  open- 
ing and  5°  for  closing. 

These  angles  are  also  applicable  where  piston-ports  are  used. 

A  similar  method  applies  to  the  inlet-cam  as  well,  although  the 
angle  of  opening  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  exhaust-cam. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

TYPES   AND    DETAILS    OF   THE    EXPLOSIVE    MOTOR 

THE  leading  features  of  two-cycle  engines  are  essentially  an  em- 
bodiment of  the  Day  model  as  first  made  in  England,  and  noted 
for  the  absence  of  valves  for  inlet  and  exhaust,  and  for  a  compression 
initial  charge  from  a  closed  crank  chamber,  made  by  the  impulse- 
stroke  of  the  piston  and  a  final  compression  and  explosion  of  the 
charge  at  every  revolution  of  the  crank-shaft.  The  air  and  gas  or 


FIG.  155.— The  Day  model. 


PIG.  156. — Root  engine. 


vapor  are  drawn  into  the  crank  chamber  by  the  action  of  the  piston 
and  the  mixture  completed  by  the  motion  of  the  crank.  From  the 
absence  of  cylinder-valves  and  valve  gear  this  type  of  explosive  en- 
gine has  the  peculiar  advantage  that  it  can  be  run  in  either  direction 
by  merely  starting  it  in  the  direction  required.  This  type  of  motors 
receives  its  charge  and  exhaust  through  cylinder-ports  at  the  end 
of  the  impulse-stroke  of  the  piston.  In  some  modifications  of  the 
Day  model  a  supplementary  exhaust  is  provided  for  by  the  use  of  a 

191 


192  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

valve  in  the  cylinder-head  or  near  it,  which  facilitates  the  passage  of 
the  fresh  charge  to  meet  the  ignition- tube  or  electrodes,  and  thus 
contributes  to  the  regularity  of  ignition. 

This  has  become  a  leading  type  with  many  variations  of  detail, 
which  are  illustrated  and  described  in  the  following  pages  of  this 
work. 

Among  the  many  designs  for  increasing  the  power  of  a  gas- 
engine  the  Root  model  for  a  duplex  explosion  seemed  to  be  a  step 
in  the  right  direction.  It  is  a  four-cycle  compression  type  with 
a  secondary  explosion  chamber  and  cylinder-port,  which  is  closed 
by  the  piston  at  about  half  compression  stroke  and  shutting  off 
part  of  the  explosive  mixture,  which  is  exploded  at  about  one- 
third  of  the  impulse-stroke  by  the  heat  of  the  primary  explosion 
in  the  clearance  space  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  The  gas 
and  air  mixture  was  injected  through  the  supplementary  cham- 
ber, thus  leaving  a  strong  charge  for  the  secondary  explosion,  and 
so  largely  increasing  the  pressure  during  expansion  of  the  exploded 
charge. 

This  type  has  not  proved  of  practical  value  and  the  author 
knows  of  none  in  use  in  the  United  States.  It  was  an  English 
invention. 

The  non-vibrating  gasoline-motor  (Fig.  157)  is  of  French  origin, 
but  now  adopted  with  modifications  by  a  number  of  motor-carriage 

builders,  for  its  quiet  running. 
It  is  of  the  four-cycle  type  with 
the  cylinders  offset  enough  to 
allow  of  a  double  crank  at  180°. 
The  ignition  adjusted  to  take 
place  at  the  same  instant,  thus 
almost  entirely  eliminating  vi- 
bration, or  ignition  may  be 

FIG.  l57.-Non^brating  motor.         made   alternately   with   a   two- 
cycle  effect.     The  radial  ribs  on 

the  motors  of  suitable  size  for  light  vehicles  are  found  efficient  and 
most  convenient  in  eliminating  one  of  the  troubles  of  explosive- 
motor  power — the  water-jacket.      The  Crest  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, Cambridge,  Mass.,  are  building  motors  similar  to  this  type. 
Water-jacketed  motors  of  this  type  for  all  uses  are  made  by  the 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR     193 

Brennan  Motor  Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  a  detailed  section  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  158,  which  represents  their  four-cycle,  high- 
compression,  non-vibrating,  opposed-cylinder  motor,  with  a  legend 
of  its  parts. 

In  Fig.  159  are  illustrated  some  details  of  the  Win  ton  automo- 
bile-motor to  which  is  given  the  names  of  the  parts  figured  in  the 


FIG.  158. — Sectional  plan  of  the  Brennan  motor. 

3-  The  crank-shaft.  4.  Connecting  rod.  6.  Piston.  7.  Compression  rings.  8.  Relief-valve. 
9.  Cap  for  admission-valve  case.  10.  Admission- valve  case.  11.  Admission-valve  spring.  12. 
Exhaust-valve.  13.  Admission-valve.  14.  Exhaust-outlet.  15.  Spark  plug.  16.  Exhaust- 
valve  guide.  17.  Push-rod.  18.  Push-rod  roller.  19.  Exhaust-valve  cam.  20.  Sleeve  for  push- 
rod.  21.  Gear  of  secondary  shaft.  22.  Gear  on  crank-shaft.  23.  Water-jacket  space.  24. 
Crank-pit  and  base.  25.  Time-ignition  case.  26.  Post  for  battery  wire.  27.  Time-ignition  cam. 
28.  Binding  screw.  30.  Bearing  for  shaft.  33.  Bearing  for  crank-shaft. 


cut.  The  design  is  of  a  very  compact  and  quick  action.  The  de- 
tachable portion  of  the  crank-case  48  is  shown  set  off,  to  which  is 
attached  the  hand  hole  cover  and  yoke. 

A  compact  horizontal  gasoline-motor,  rib-jacketed,  and  de- 
signed for  an  automobile  (Fig.  160),  is  of  French  origin.  It  has  a 
special  combustion  chamber  and  attached  valve  chamber  for  facil- 
itating ignition  by  tube  or  spark,  the  tube  being  shown  in, the  sketch. 
P  is  a  short  platinum  tube  directly  over  the  Bunsen  burner  G, 
operated  by  gasoline-vapor  generated  in  the  burner.  H  is  the 
carbureter,  which  receives  its  charge  through  an  automatic  valve 


194 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


where  it  is  vaporized  by  warm  air  from  over  the  burner.     The  vapor 
charge  with  its  air  mixture  is  drawn  in  through  the  valve  E.     A 


,17 


FIG.  159. — Section  and  frame  of  the  Winton  automobile  motor. 

Reference  Numbers. — 3.  Drop-frame.  4,  5.  Exhaust-pipe  leading  to  6  Expansion  chamber 
or  muffler.  7,  8.  Water-circulating  centrifugal  pump.  9.  Crank-case.  10.  Exhaust-valve  cam  on 
secondary  shaft  for  each  cylinder.  11.  Cam-roller.  12.  Exhaust-roller  guide.  13.  Exhaust-spring 
chamber  cover  plate.  14.  Exhaust-valve  spring  and  spindle.  15.  Inlet-valve  chamber.  17,  18. 
Inlet-valve  piston  and  spring.  24,  25.  Inlet-valve  chamber  and  valve.  27.  Bushings  for  spark- 
plug wires.  28.  Water-pipe  from  cylinders  to  radiator.  29.  Cylinder  relief-cock.  37.  Cylinder  oil- 
connection.  48.  Detached  portion  of  crank-case. 

reducing  gear,  cam  and  lever,  operates  the  exhaust-valve,  and  speed 
is  regulated  by  varying  the  charge  of  gasoline-vapor,  which  is  con- 
trolled by  an  index-cock.  The  crank  end  and  fly-wheel  are  enclosed 


FIG.  160. — Gasoline  automobile  motor. 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      195 


in  a  light  iron  case,  which  holds  the  oil  for  lubricating  the  journals 
and  gearing.     The  other  lettered  parts  are  self-explanatory. 

In  Fig.  161  is  illustrated  in  section  a  two-cylinder  marine  auto- 
mobile-motor of  European  design,  with  platinum  hot-tube  igniter. 
The  gasoline  is  fed  through  a  regulator  to  a  jet-nozzle  at  the  bottom 
of  the  atomizing  chamber  K  and  mixed  with  the  incoming  air 


FIG.  161. — Vertical  marine  or  automobile 
model. 


FIG.  162. — Vertical  stationary 
model. 


through  the  cage  and  air  chamber  H,  and  finally  vaporized  in  the 
passage  E. 

In  Fig.  162  is  illustrated  a  vertical  stationary  model,  also  of  Eu- 
ropean design,  and  also  with  a  platinum  hot-tube  igniter  and  similar 
feed  as  described  above.  The  cylinder-heads  of  both  motors  are 
water-jacketed,  integral  with  the  cylinder.  The  exhaust-valves  of 
both  motors  are  operated  by  a  pick-blade  action  from  cams  on  the 
secondary  shafts;  but  by  what  means  the  speed  is  governed  is  not 
made  clear. 


196 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


In  Fig.  163  is  illustrated  a  vertical  motor  of  European  design 
with  cross-head  and  guides,  in  section,  and  in  Fig.  164  a  side-view 


FIG.  163. — Sectional  elevation. 


LUBRICATO 


FIG.  164. — Side  view. 


of  the  same  motor.    This  type  relieves  the  piston  of  side-thrust, 
but  involves  a  longer  gait  or  shorter  connecting  rod;  a  disadvantage 


FIG.  165. — Differential  piston-motor. 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS   OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      197 

not  approved  of  by  our  best  engineers.  It  is  derived  from  the  lean 
of  designers  toward  steam-engine  practice.  It  is  a  departure  from 
the  most  approved  explosive-motor  practice  and  is  not  recom- 
mended as  the  basis  of  simplicity  in  motor  design. 

In  Fig.  165  is  illustrated  a  gas-engine  of  the  scavenging  class, 
of  European  design,  in  which  a  piston  of  larger  size  than  the  engine- 
piston  acts  as  a  cross-head  for  the  connecting  rod  and  as  a  pump  for 
compressing  the  air  charges.  Each  outward  stroke  of  the  differen- 
tial pistons  draws  air  through  the  valves  F,  and  by  the  return 
strokes  compresses  it  in  the  chamber  D,  which  communicates  with 
the  passage  E,  for  furnishing  the  charge  under  pressure.  The  inlet- 


FIG.  166. — Vertical  section  of  cylinder. 

valve  H  opens  during  the  last  moment  of  the  exhaust-stroke,  forc- 
ing a  scavenging  blast  from  the  accumulated  pressure  in  the  passage 
E.  The  double  piston  largely  adds  to  engine  friction  and  compli- 
cation, which  lessens  the  mechanical  efficiency  to  a  greater  extent 
than  the  value  of  the  scavenging  effect. 

In  Fig.  166  is  illustrated  a  vertical  section  of  the  gas  and  gasoline- 
engine  as  built  by  the  Columbus  Machine  Company,  Columbus,  0. 
Its  design  has  been  toward  the  fewest  parts  that  will  give  efficiency, 
ready  adjustment,  and  renewal  of  vital  wearing  parts,  together  with 
a  gas  and  gasoline  attachment  that  allows  of  interchange  of  fuel 
elements  without  stopping  the  engine,  if  necessary. 

It  has  a  supplementary  exhaust  through  a  port  in  the  cylinder, 


198 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


opened  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  which  has  been  shown 
to  be  a  great  relief  to  the  work  and  wear  of  the  exhaust-valve,  as  by 
this  exhaust  arrangement  the  exhaust-valve  opening  follows  the 
piston-port  opening. 

The  governor  controls  the  gas  and  air  charge  by  holding  or 
throttling  the  inlet  duplex-valve,  the  lower  section  around  the 
spindle  being  a  gas  chamber  fed  by  the  pipe  y  (Fig.  167),  while  the 
annular  chamber  receives  the  air  through  a  side  inlet,  the  mixture 
taking  place  between  the  two  valves.  The  spindle  of  the  gas-valve 
is  hollow,  through  which  the  spindle  of  the  inlet- valve  passes  beyond 
the  spring-block  x,  at  o',  so  that  the  cam-operated  lever  opens  the 
inlet-valve  first  and  wider  than  the  gas- valve.  Both  valves  are 

fitted  and  seated  in  re- 
movable cases;  the  cylin- 
der and  head  being  cast 
in  a  single  piece.  The  hole 
through  the  cylinder-head 


w        V 
FIG.  167.— Valve-cases. 


FIG.  168. — Gasoline  attachment. 


serves  the  work  of  boring  the  cylinder,  and  to  receive  the  igniter 
device,  which  is  a  contact-break  with  a  wiping  motion,  which 
prevents  fouling  of  the  electrodes,  as  shown  at  m',  n'. 

In  Fig.  168  is  a  section  of  the  gasoline  attachment,  consisting 
of  a  constant-level  chamber  /",  an  inlet-pipe  </',  overflow  exit  e", 
a  small  needle-valve  z' ',  and  tubes  &",  discharging  into  the  air- 
mixing  chamber  u1.  The  cylinder  and  its  water-jacket  is  cast  in 
one  piece  with  an  open  water  space  at  the  crank  end,  which  is 
covered  with  ring  flanges  o"  and  n".  The  ignition  and  valve 
chamber  are  water  cooled  as  shown  at  t" . 

In  Fig.  169  is  shown  a  sectional  plan  of  the  White  and  Middleton 
motor  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  the  principal  exhaust- 


TYPES   AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      199 

port  opened  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  its  impulse-stroke.  The 
supplementary  exhaust-valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  across  the  cyl- 
inder-head and  a  push-rod  direct  from  a  differential-slide  mechan- 
ism, which  does  away  with  the  reducing  gear  used  on  other  engines. 
An  arm  on  the  push-rod  operates  the  gas-valve  stem,  which  is 
provided  with  a  regulating  adjustment. 

A  small  roller-disk  on  the  push-rod  mechanism  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  centrifugal  governor  and  a  spring,  being  thrown  out  of  gear 
with  the  shaft-cam  whenever  the  speed  of  the  engine  exceeds  the 
normal  rate,  and  thus  failing  to  open  the  gas  supply  and  the  supple- 
mentary exhaust-valve  until  the  speed  of  the  engine  has  returned  to 
its  normal  rate.  There  is  a  relief-valve  opening  into  the  supple- 


FIG.    169. — Sectional  plan  of  the  White  and  Middleton  engine. 

mentary  exhaust-passage  for  relieving  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
when  starting  the  engine.  The  whole  design  of  the  engine  is  ex- 
ceedingly simple  and  its  action  noiseless. 

When  gasoline  is  used  the  gas-supply  valve  is  replaced  by  a 
small  pump,  which  is  operated  by  the  push-rod,  and  its  hit-or- 
miss  stroke  is  governed  by  the  action  of  the  push-rod  and  its  gov- 
ernor. 

We  illustrate  the  special  construction  of  the  Lewis  gas  and 
gasoline-motor  in  Figs.  170  and  171,  built  by  J.  Thompson  and 
Sons  Manufacturing  Company,  Beloit,  Wis.  The  principal  feat- 
ure of  this  motor  is  the  addition  of  the  cylinder-port  exhaust  as 
an  auxiliary  to  the  regular  exhaust-valve,  which  is  now  a  conceded 
measure  of  economy  in  reduced  exhaust  back-pressure  and  in  the 
saving  of  wear  on  the  exhaust-valve. 


200 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  vaporizer  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  171,  which  consists 
of  a  chamber  M,  with  an  air-pipe  A,  by  which  the  mixture  of 
gasoline  and  air  is  regulated  by  drawing  the  air-pipe  to  or  from  the 
surface  of  the  gasoline  constant-level,  which  is  regulated  by  the 
overflow-pipe  at  M.  A  further  regulation  of  the  charge  mixture  is 
made  by  the  valve  at  the  right  of  the  vaporizing  chamber.  The 
gasoline-pump  is  operated  from  the  arm  of  the  exhaust-valve  lever. 
The  igniter  is  of  the  hammer-break  type  and  is  attached  by  a  flange 
to  the  side  of  the  inlet  chamber  and  operated  directly  from  a  snap- 
cam  on  the  reducing  shaft.  The  governor  limits  the  lift  of  the  inlet- 
valve  through  the  arm  on  its  spindle. 


FIG.  170. — Lewis  motor. 

In  Fig.  172  is  shown  a  sectional  plan  of  the  Olin  gasoline-engine. 
It  is  of  the  four-cycle  type  with  an  exhaust-port  opened  by  the 
piston  at  the  end  of  its  impulse-stroke  by  which  the  exhaust  with  its 
terminal-stroke  heat  is  impinged  upon  a  tube  through  which  the 
charge  is  fed  and  vaporizes  the  gasoline.  The  exhaust  surrounds 
the  vaporizing  tube  by  the  passage  and  chamber  J.  The  exhaust 
is  continued  after  the  closure  of  the  piston-port  by  an  annular  valve 
around  the  inlet-valve. 

In  Fig.  173  is  shown  the  sectional  detail  of  a  vehicle  motor 
lately  brought  out  in  France.  The  engraving  has  been  made  on 
a  scale  of  T3g-  of  an  inch  to  one  inch,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
being  3|  of  an  inch,  with  4-inch  stroke.  It  is  rated  at  4  horse- 
power at  full  speed. 


TYPES   AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      201 

A  novel  arrangement  for  cooling  the  motor  by  means  of  a 
mechanical  ventilator  has  been  adopted,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
successful  features  of  this  motor.  Motors  with  the  ordinary  type 
of  cooling  wings,  of  which  the  De  Dion  is  a  good  example,  offer 
great  advantages  of  simplicity  which  make  them  preferred  for 
the  smaller  powers,  but  unfortunately  they  do  not  always  give 
entire  satisfaction  on  account  of  the  insufficient  cooling  when  the 
vehicle  moves  slowly  and  the  current  of  air  is  small;  this  is  espe- 
cially noticed  in  hill-climbing.  To  remedy  this  the  motor  runs  a 
small  fan  which  is  mounted  on  ball-bearings  and  consequently 


FIG.  171. — Vertical  section  of  motor  and  vaporizer. 

takes  but  little  power.  It  is  set  in  motion  by  a  friction-roller  in 
contact  with  the  fly-wheel  of  the  motor.  This  ventilator  blows 
a  current  of  air  against  the  motor-cylinder,  and  thus  the  cooling 
is  independent  of  the  speed  of  the  vehicle.  This  motor  drives  by 
a  shifting  belt  on  tight  and  loose  pulleys  with  separate  speed  and 
reversing  gear.  It  is  noticed  that  the  crank-shaft  bearing  is  six 
times  longer  than  its  diameter,  which  makes  the  balanced  crank 
self-supporting,  the  pin  of  which  carries  freely  a  secondary  gear- 
crank  45  and  pinion,  gearing  into  a  spur-wheel  on  the  cam-shaft 
46,  which  also  operates  the  electric-current  brake  (37-39)  with 
a  jump-spark  igniter  26.  Oil  is  fed  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 


202 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


into  an  annular  groove  into  which  the  lower  edge  of  the  piston  dips 
at  each  stroke.  The  main  journal  is  oiled  by  the  overflow  from 
the  annular  groove  and  the  dash  of  the  crank,  through  the  long  oil- 
passages  and  the  surplus  returned  to  the  crank  chamber  from  the 
end  of  the  bearing.  A  leather  washer  between  the  end  of  the  shaft 
bearing  and  the  fly-wheel  hub  prevents  waste  of  oil  and  entrance 
of  dust.  Speed  is  controlled  by  the  gasoline-feed  through  atomiz- 
ing vaporizers  (which  see,  ante).  This  class  of  motors  makes  an 
excellent  study  for  amatuer  mechanics. 

The  latest  design  of  the  Nash  gas-motor  is  illustrated  in  section 
in  Fig.  174.  It  is  of  the  four-cycle  type,  with  one,  two,  or  three 
vertical  cylinders.  The  speed  is  controlled  through  the  governor 
by  missed  charges. 


FIG.  172. — Plan  of  the  Olin  gasoline-engine. 

The  air  chest  surrounds  the  passage  by  which  gas  enters  and 
is  drawn  with  the  air  into  the  mixing  chamber  A.  The  admission 
valve  B  is  open  during  each  suction-stroke  and  the  mixture  passes 
through  that  valve  to  the  cylinder  to  be  compressed  upon  the 
succeeding  stroke  and  then  exploded.  The  toe  which  lifts  the 
gas-valve  is  carried  upon  the  stem  of  the  admission-valve  and  is 
kept  from  engaging  with  the  latch  upon  the  gas-valve  stem  when 
explosion  is  not  required.  The  admission  is  operated  by  a  posi- 
tive cam  upon  the  side-shaft  in  an  obvious  manner,  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  opened  every  fourth  stroke  insures  an  indraft  of  fresh  air, 
even  when  no  gas  is  admitted,  scavenging  the  cylinder  of  any  prod- 
ucts of  combustion  remaining.  The  exhaust-valve  is  similar  to 
the  admission-valve,  but  its  roller  can  be  thrown  to  a  cam,  relieving 
the  compression  when  starting  up.  The  igniter  is  at  1  and  is  oper- 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR     203 

ated  by  an  eccentric  upon  a  side-shaft  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
engine,  this  side-shaft  being  operated  by  a  cross-shaft  geared  to 


FIG.  173. — Section  of  air-cooled  motor. 

Figured  parts  of  the  motor. — 12.  Crank-shaft.  13.  Oil-cooling  tube.  14.  Oil-duct.  19. 
Pet-cock.  20.  Key.  21.  Washer.  22.  Spring.  23.  Valve-guide.  24.  Admission- valve.  25. 
Valve-seat.  26.  Igniter.  27.  Porcelain.  28.  Exhaust-valve.  29.  Exhaust-valve  seat.  30. 
Exhaust-valve  stem  guide.  31.  Exhaust-valve  stem.  32.  Spring.  33.  Collar.  34.  Exhaust- 
valve  operating  rod.  35.  Cam-roller  controlling  exhaust.  36.  Thumb-screw.  37.  Contact. 
38.  Platinum  contact.  39.  Screw-controlling  platinum  contact.  40.  Distributing-crank  bear- 
ing. 41.  Distributing-gear  wheel.  42.  Distributing  pinion.  43.  Drain-cock.  44.  Waste-pipe 
45.  Distributing-crank.  46.  Cam-shaft  for  exhaust.  48.  Piston.  49.  Pin  of  piston-rod.  50. 
Oil-groove  in  frame. 


the  other  side-shaft,  which  in  turn  is  geared  to  the  main  shaft  with 
two-to-one  spur  gears.     The  governor  is  driven  from  the  first  side- 


204 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


shaft  and  simply  regulates  the  position  of  the  latch  upon  the  gas- 
valve  stem. 

The  Diesel  oil-engine  has  come  to  the  front  for  economy  and 
as  a  motor  in  which  any  of  the  fuel-oils  of  commerce  give  most 
satisfactory  results.  It  is  of  German  origin  and  with  the  late 
improvements  obtained  from  American  suggestions  in  design  and 
the  modifications  brought  out  from  its  extensive  use  in  Germany, 
its  details  have  been  much  simplified,  and  in  the  hands  of  the 


FIG.  174. — The  Nash  gas-engine. 

Diesel  Motor  Company  of  America,  whose  office  is  at  No.  11  Broad- 
way, New  York  City,  and  factory  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  it  is  now 
taking  the  lead  for  the  larger  powers  and  is  especially  adapted 
for  operating  electric  plants.  It  is  a  two-cycle  type  and  with  du- 
plex cylinders  for  driving  electric  generators  brings  the  variation  in 
light  effect  within  one  per  cent,  The  points  of  difference  from 
other  explosive  motors  are  a  small  clearance  of  about  seven  per 
cent,  of  the  piston-sweep,  high  compression  to  about  500  pounds  per 
square  inch,  sudden  injection  of  liquid  fuel  at  a  still  higher  pressure, 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      205 


and  its  spontaneous  ignition  by  the  heat  of  compression.  Appar- 
ently there  is  no  sudden  explosion,  but  rather  a  gradual  combustion 
of  the  charge  of  the  sprayed  oil  and  the  oxygen  of  the  hot  com- 
pressed air  during  part  of  the  stroke.  The  motor  is  of  the  four- 
cycle construction,  operated  on  the  two-cycle  impulse,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  its  essential  parts  in  the  section  (Fig.  175).  The  steel 
reservoir  T  is  the  high-pressure  air-reserve,  supplied  by  an  air- 
pump  P,  driven  by  the  motor  through  the  rocker-arm  Y,  while  the 
small  pump  Q,  also  operated  from  the  same  arm,  supplies  the  fuel- 


FIG.  175.— The  Diesel  engine. 


FIG.  176.— The  light  motor 


oil  at  the  required  pressure  to  be  injected  with  the  high-pressure  air 
used  for  spraying  the  charge.  Further  details  are  given  in  the 
general  description  of  explosive  motors.  Also  see  indicator  card, 
page  52. 

One  of  the  lightest  gasoline-motors  that  we  know  of  on  record 
has  been  produced  by  the  Duryea  Motor  Company,  Reading,  Pa. 
It  is  a  six-cylinder  motor  of  the  opposed-cylinder  type,  working  on  a 
three-throw  crank-shaft  in  a  perfectly  mechanical  balance.  Its 
four-cycle  type  gives  the  motor  three  impulses  to  each  revolution, 
thus  reducing  the  fly-wheel  to  the  smallest  dimensions  and  weight. 


206 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


As  it  appears  in  the  cuts  it  weighs  slightly  over  200  pounds,  or 
less  than  five  pounds  per  horse-power.  With  spark-coil,  battery, 
fuel,  and  water- tanks  partly  filled,  it  weighs  232  pounds,  or  5.7 
pounds  per  horse-power.  The  cylinders  are  4J-inch  bore  by  5J-inch 
stroke,  with  bearings  of  the  same  size  as  used  in  the  company's 
regular  automobile-motors.  Jump-spark  ignition  is  used,  having 
a  single  coil  and  commutating  the  secondary  current.  The  inlet 
and  exhaust-valves  may  be  removed  from  any  cylinder-head  by 
loosening  a  single  nut.  The  crank-shaft  and  crank-pins  are  hollow 
for  lubrication  purposes. 

This  motor  is  believed  to  be  the  lightest  for  its  power  ever  con- 
structed and  is  another  evidence  of  the  mechanical  development 
brought  about  by  the  requirements  of  the  automobile. 

One  of  the  later  designs  for  balancing  the  explosive  shock  is 
the  balanced  explosive  motor  of  the  Secor  type  in  Fig.  177.     The 
charge  is  fired  in  the  chamber  X, 
between    the   two   pistons  H    H' 
whose  motion   is   transmitted   to 
the    cranks    G  G',   having  equal 
throw  and  set  at  180°  apart  on 
the  crank-shaft. 

The  pistons  are  connected  by 


FIG.  177. — Balanced  motor. 


FIG.  178. — Combination  motor. 


the  short  connecting-rods  H  H'  to  the  vertical  levers  D  D',  which 
transmit  motion  to  the  cranks  through  the  connecting  rods  F  F'. 

A  more  curious  than  practical  design  of  a  motor  is  a  combina- 
tion of  a  steam  and  an  explosive  motor  in  one  machine,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  178,  and  is  thus  described : 

In  this  design  the  piston  of  the  explosive  motor  is  made  the 


TYPES   AND  DETAILS   OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR      207 

cross-head  for  the  connecting  rod.  A  duplex  steam-engine  with  a 
duplex  explosive  motor  as  an  auxiliary  power  in  which  the  exhaust 
of  the  steam-engine  may  also  be  turned  into  the  explosive-motor 
cylinder  as  an  additional  power  and  lubricant  when  the  explosive 
motor  is  not  in  use. 

In  Fig.  179  is  shown  a  section  of  the  two-cycle  marine  motor 
of  the  Lozier  Motor  Company,  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.     The  principal 


WATER  JACKET 


IGNITIOM 

W#&    .MECHANISM 
^^mu'  S 


FIG.  179. — Lozier  gasoline-motor. 

features  are  the  throttle- valve  to  regulate  the  charge  from  the  crank 
chamber  and  the  operation  of  the  hammer  spark-break  from  a  cam 
on  the  shaft.  A  rotary  circulating  pump  is  driven  by  chain  from 
the  main  shaft  and  bhe  discharge  of  the  water  from  the  cylinder  is 
around  the  exhaust-pipe.  The  thrust  is  taken  by  ball-bearings  in 
the  cam-hub.  A  throttle-valve  in  the  passage  from  the  crank  cham- 
ber to  the  cylinder,  with  an  index  handle,  regulates  the  charge. 
The  starting  handle  is  located  within  the  rim  of  the  fly-wheel  and 


208 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


held  by  a  light  spring.     To  start  the  motor  the  handle  is  pulled  out 
and  flies  back  the  moment  the  motor  starts  by  its  own  impulse, 

thus    saving    much    annoyance    from 
starting  crank- wrenches. 

In  Fig.  180  is  shown  a  horizontal 
section  of  the  cylinder-head  of  a  mo- 
EXHAUST  tor  designed  by  H.  J.  Perkins,  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich.  It  is  seen  that  the 
fitting  of  the  inlet-valve  casing  is  re- 
cessed on  its  outside  so  as  to  make 
an  annular  gas  chamber  immediately 
behind  the  valve  seat  and  through 
which  38  small  holes  are  drilled  around 
the  face  of  the  seat,  thus  making  a 
simple  and  thorough  mixture  of  the 
charge  at  the  moment  of  entrance  to 
the  cylinder,  the  air  entering  through 
a  side  passage,  as  shown  by  the  circle  in  the  valve  chamber.  The 
motor  is  of  the  four-cycle  type  and  the  exhaust-valve  governs  by 
the  hit-or-miss  action  from  the  fly-wheel  centrifugal  governor. 
The  regulation  is  by  holding  open  the  exhaust-valve  by  a  stop- 
lever  that  catches  the  push-rod  when  the  valve  is  open  and  hold- 
ing it  until  released  by  the  governor.  A  single  eccentric  actuates 


FIG.  180.— The  valves. 


VALVE  CHAMBER 


FIG.  181. — The  Lazier  motor.     Sectional  plan. 

the  four-cycle  principle  by  a  pick-blade  that  makes  a  miss-push  at 
every  other  revolution. 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      209 

It  may  be  noticed  that  the  valves  in  this  design  are  as  large  as 
can  be  made  practical  in  a  cylinder-head  and  that  the  inlet-valve  is 
larger  than  the  exhaust-valve,  which  allows  for  a  low  lift  for  better 
mixing  of  the  fuel  and  air. 

The  motors  of  the  Lazier  Gas-Engine  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
have  a  peculiar  valve-arrangement,  which  we  illustrate  in  Figs. 
181,  182,  183.  The  design  is  of  the  four-cycle  type,  with  the  hit- 
or-miss  governing  gear,  but  is  peculiar  in  the  fact  that  its  exhaust- 
valve  is  the  only  one  mechanically  operated,  and  is  so  constructed 
that  when  the  engine  needs  to  miss  an  explosion  it  is  held  open, 


FIG.  182. — Vertical  section  of  valves. 


FIG.  183. — Horizontal  section  of  valves. 

telescoping  over  the  seat  of  the  air-suction  valve,  cutting  off  all  fuel 
supply,  and  allowing  the  piston  to  travel  in  the  cylinder  without 
compensation,  during  which  time  the  valves  remain  in  a  state  of 
rest.  Fig.  181  shows  a  plan  in  section  of  the  cylinder,  while  Figs. 
182  and  183  are  horizontal  and  vertical  sections,  showing  the  valve- 
mechanism  upon  a  larger  scale.  Fig.  184  shows  the  position  of  the 
valves  during  a  suction-stroke,  the  admission-valves  a  A  being 
drawn  open  by  suction,  the  explosive  charge  entering  as  shown  by 
the  arrows,  and  the  exhaust-valve  E  being  seated.  On  the  next 
stroke  the  charge  is  compressed;  the  next  is  the  explosion  or  work- 
ing stroke.  At  the  end  of  the  power  stroke  the  piston  uncovers  the 


210 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


automatic  port  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  which  allows  the  high- 
terminal  pressure  to  be  reduced,  thus  permitting  the  main  exhaust- 
valve  to  open  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  at  which 
time  the  piston  sweeps  back, 
clearing  the  residue  gas 
from  the  cylinder,  and  is 
then  ready  to  take  in  a  new 
mixture  if  governor  permits, 
and  on  the  next  the  exhaust- 
valve  is  held  open,  allowing 
the  products  of  combustion 
to  escape.  All  this  time 
the  pressure  on  the  cylin- 
der has  been  greater  than 

FIG.  184.-Inlet  valve  open.  the  outside  Qf  the  admission- 

valve,  and  there  has  been  no  tendency  for  the  latter  to  open.  In 
fact,  during  the  exhaust-stroke  the  valve  is  in  the  position  shown 
in  Fig.  184,  completely  covering  the  admission-valve.  When  the 
speed  exceeds  the  normal,  the  exhaust-valve  remains  in  this  posi- 
tion, so  that  on  the  suction-stroke  there  is  no  vacuum  created,  the 
exhaust-passage  being  open,  and  even  if  there  were  the  admission- 
valve  is  effectively  closed  by  the  telescoping  of  the  exhaust-valve. 


FIG.  185.— Section,  Oil  City  Motor. 

Neither  is  there  any  useless  compression,  the  exhaust  remaining 
open  and  the  valve  remaining  motionless  until  another  admission 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      211 

is  required.  The  air-suction  and  fuel- valves  are  mounted  in  a 
cage  with  ground  seats  with  ports  registering  with  openings  in  the 
valve  chamber  proper,  thus  allowing  the  valve  cage  to  be  taken 
out  without  disturbing  the  piping. 

In  Fig.  185  we  illustrate  in  a  vertical  sectional  view  the  "Oil 
City  Motor,"  built  by  the  Oil  City  Boiler  Works,  Oil  City,  Pa. 
An  auxiliary  exhaust  by  a  cylinder-port  is  one  of  the  features 
of  this  four-cycle  motor.  The  gas-inlet  and  atomizing  valve  for 
gasoline,  seen  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder-head,  is  an  annular  cham- 
ber around  a  perforated  valve  seat,  with  space  between  it  and  the 
final  inlet-valve  for  thorough  vaporization  of  the  gasoline  and  mix- 


FIG.  186. — Longitudinal  section  of  engine. 

ing  with  the  incoming  air.  In  their  smaller  motors  regulation  is 
made  by  holding  the  exhaust-valve  open  by  the  governor.  In  the 
large  motors  the  throttling  system  is  used.  Hot-tube  or  electric 
ignition  as  desired. 

Valve-action  of  the  Bessemer  engine,  of  the  Bessemer  Gas-Engine 
Company,  Grove  City,  Pa.  The  engine  is  of  the  two-cycle  type  and 
its  operation  is  as  follows: 

During  the  backward  stroke  of  the  piston,  Fig.  186,  the  mixture 
of  air  and  gas  is  drawn  into  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  through  the 
port  A,  while  at  the  same  time  the  previous  charge  is  being  com- 
pressed in  the  back  end  or  combustion  chamber  B.  As  soon  as  the 


212 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


piston  completes  the  stroke,  the  charge  is  ignited  and  the  piston 
driven  forward  by  the  burning  gases.  When  the  piston  reaches  the 
end  of  the  stroke  in  the  direction  of  the  shaft,  the  exhaust-port  C 
is  opened,  and  at  about  the  same  time  the  gas-port  D,  at  the  top  of 
the  cylinder,  is  opened,  admitting  the  fresh  charge,  which  was  com- 
pressed by  the  piston  during  the  working  stroke. 

The  incoming  charge  enters  the  cylinder  under  moderate  pres- 
sure and  drives  the  burnt  gases  before  it,  thus  filling  the  cylinder 
very  quickly  with  the  fresh  mixture. 

The  air  and  gas  are  drawn  into  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder 

through  the  gas-valve  E,  lo- 
cated beneath  the  cylinder, 
Fig.  187  being  an  enlarged 
view  of  this  valve.  The  air 
enters  through  the  large  an- 
nular opening  F,  while  the 
gas  is  admitted  through  a 
series  of  small  holes  or  ports 
G.  The  valve  H  when  seated 


closes  the  opening  F  and  the 
small  ports  G,  both  being 
opened  simultaneously  by  the 
valve,  which  is  raised  by  the 
suction  of  the  piston.  Air  en- 
ters the  valve-body  through 
the  air-pipe  I  (Fig.  187),  which 
is  connected  with  the  interior 


FIG.  187. — Section  of  air  and  gas  valve. 


of  the  bed  to  avoid  drawing  in  dust  and  dirt. 

The  governor  is  located  in  the  gas-pipe  at  the  side  and  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  the  speed  being  regulated  by  throttling 
the  gas  and  thus  modifying  the  force  of  the  explosion  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  load.  The  cylinder  and  back  cylinder-head  are 
water-jacketed,  the  front  head  having  no  jacket,  since  it  is  sub- 
jected to  the  low  temperatures  due  to  the  slight  compression  of 
the  fresh  charge  or  mixture.  This  engine  is  provided  with  a  piston- 
rod,  cross-head,  and  guides  the  same  as  a  steam-engine;  in  fact, 
the  construction  throughout  is  in  accord  with  the  practice  in  steam 
and  gas  engine-construction. 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      213 


The  stuffing-box  in  the  front  head  is  subjected  to  only  moderate 
pressures  and  temperatures,  consequently  no  trouble  is  experienced 
in  maintaining  a  tight 
and  durable  joint. 
The  working  parts  are 
enclosed  by  a  neat 
hood  and  crank-case 
which  not  only  pre- 
vent dust  and  dirt 
from  reaching  the  vital 
parts,  but  render  the 
engine  self-oiling  and 
adapted  to  making 
long  continuous  runs 
with  the  minimum  of 


FIG.  188.— Valve  gear. 


attention.  The  con- 
necting rod  is  of  the 
marine  type  and  extra  heavy.  The  pins  are  also  large  and  pro- 
vided with  means  for  obtaining  ample  lubrication.  The  main 
shaft-bearings  are  provided  with  chain-oilers  which  ensure  copious 
lubrication  at  all  speeds,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  any  waste 
of  oil. 

The  piston  is  oiled  by  means  of  a  special  automatic  sight-feed 

oiler.  The  piston  is  very 
long,  thus  providing  liberal 
wearing  surfaces  and  is 
provided  with  four  wide 
packing  rings.  The  engine 
is  not  only  very  simple, 
but  is  unusually  massive, 
being  designed  for  all  kinds 
of  service  for  which  gas- 
engines  can  be  employed. 
The  gas-engine  of  the 
Dudbridge  Iron  Works 
Company,  Strand,  England, 
has  some  peculiarities 
FIG.  189.— Cylinder  and  inlet  valve.  worthy  of  record,  and  which 


214 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


we  illustrate  in  Figs.  188,  189,  and  190.     The  cylinder  is  over- 
hung and  bolted  to  the  bed-piece  and  made  in  two  pieces.     The 

jacket  and  cylinder-head 
are  cast  in  a  single  piece 
and  the  liner  made  of  a 
specially  hard  mixture  of 
iron  for  wearing  quality 
and  easy  replacement 
when  worn  out.  The 
valve-casings  are  all  con- 
tained in  the  cylinder- 
head,  which  is  spherical 
and  water-jacketed.  All 
valves  are  contained  in 
casings  with  flanges  and 
shoulder  joints,  easily  re- 
moved for  cleaning  or  re- 
pairs. Ignition  is  of  the 
hot-tube  type,  as  shown 

at  J  I,  and  the  gas-inlet  is  regulated  by  an  index-cock  at  V 
(Fig.  190). 

The  governor,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  illustrations, 
is  of  the  fly-ball  type,  controlling  the  engine  on  the  hit-or-miss 
principle. 

The  construction  of  the  valve  gear  may  be  more  readily  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  figures.  All  valves  are  worked  from  the 
reducing  shaft  L,  which  is  driven  from  the  crank-shaft  by  means  of 
helical  gears.  F  and  G  are  air  and  gas-valves  respectively,  valve 
G  opening  directly  into  the  air-inlet  H.  The  exhaust-valve  E 
opens  directly  into  the  exhaust  outlet  0.  The  air-valve  F  is  driven 
through  the  lever  /  by  means  of  the  cam  c.  The  exhaust-valve 
is  controlled  by  the  lever  e,  operated  by  the  cam  d.  The  gas- 
valve  is  opened  by  means  of  a  small  arm  B,  and  the  striker-blade 
A  attached  to  the  air-lever  arm.  Small  arm  B  also  carries  a  striker 
which  is  met  by  the  striker-arm  A  as  it  moves  toward  the  cylinder 
to  open  the  air-valve.  Arm  B  is  under  control  of  the  governor 
through  the  arm  C,  and  so  connected  that,  as  the  governor  rises, 
lever  B  is  lifted  and  the  striker  b  is  lifted  out  of  the  path  of  A.  In 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      215 

this  manner,  when  the  speed  rises  above  the  limit,  the  gas-valve  G  is 
not  opened,  and  the  cylinder  takes  in  a  charge  of  pure  air,  thus  miss- 


FIG.  191. — Section,  Wayne  motor. 

ing  impulses  and  developing  less  power.  The  speed  of  the  engine 
may  be  increased  by  putting  on  extra  weights  as  shown  at  D,  or  the 
speed  may  be  decreased  by  removing  weights  on  the  governor  at  D. 
In  Fig.  191  are  shown  some  of  the  details  of  the  "  Wayne  Motor/' 
built  by  the  Fort  Wayne  Foundry  and  Machine  Company,  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.  A  double  cam  on  the  reducing  gear-shaft  operates 


FIG.  102 — Longitudinal  section  of  the  Elyria  gas-engine. 

the  exhaust- valve  E  through  a  push-rod  and  lever  across  the  cyl- 
inder-head and  also  a  supplementary  gas-valve,  independent  from 
the  free  opening  inlet- valve.  The  igniter  of  the  make-and-break 


216 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


type  is  operated  by  a  pick-blade  on  the  end  of  the  firing-rod  which 
engages  with  the  arm  of  the  igniter-spindle.  The  throw  of  the  firing- 
rod  is  controlled  by  the  governor. 

In  Fig.  192  is  illustrated  a  section  of  the  horizontal  gas-engine 
of  the  Elyria  Gas-Engine  Company,  Elyria,  0.  The  section  is  on 
the  central  line  and  shows  the  method  of  bolting  the  cylinder  to 
the  base-frame,  which  is  of  box  form.  The  cut  shows  all  the  parts 
of  cylinder,  piston,  piston-rod,  crank-balance  weight,  and  fly-wheel 
radius  in  good  proportions. 

Fig.  193  shows  a  cross  section  of  the  cylinder,  valve  chamber, 

valves,  and  exhaust-valve 
bell-crank  lever,  a  simple 
and  compact  device. 

Ignition  is  by  means  of 
an  electric  spark,  the  plug 
for  which  is  placed  in  the 
valve  chamber  between  the 
inlet  and  exhaust  -  valve, 
where  it  has  the  benefit  of 
the  cooling  effect  of  the  in- 
coming air,  thereby  prolong- 
ing the  life  of  the  sparking 

points.     It  will  be  seen  that 
FIG.  193.-Cross  section  through  the  cylin-     ^     inlet.valve     ig     enclosed 
der  and  valve  chamber.  ,  . 

in  a   flanged    bushing   large 

enough  to  allow  the  exhaust-valve  to  be  drawn  out  through  the 
inlet-valve  opening.  A  good  construction  design. 


A    NOVEL    KEROSENE-OIL   MOTOR 

In  Fig.  194  is  illustrated  the  details  of  a  kerosene  vaporizing 
device  as  applied  to  a  two-cycle  motor,  the  invention  of  J.  F.  Deni- 
son,  New  Haven,  Conn.  Only  pure  air  is  contained  in  the  crank- 
case  and  by  this  means  the  motor  is  made  in  a  degree  a  scavenging 
one;  the  fresh  air  from  the  compression  in  the  crank-case  for  a  mo- 
ment is  blown  into  the  cylinder  before  the  opening  of  the  vapor- 
inlet  valve. 

The  method  of  operation  is  as  follows : 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      217 


Kerosene  is  kept  in  a  tight  tank  or  reservoir.  Pressure  is  put  on 
the  fuel  by  connecting  the  upper  part  of  the  reservoir  with  the 
engine  crank-case  and  interposing  a  check-valve  V  in  the  pipe 
between  them. 

The  kerosene  is  drawn  from  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  and 
passes  through  a  coil  C  in  the  combustion  chamber,  where  it  is 
turned  into   gas  or  vapor. 
While  the  engine  is  running 
the   oil    is  heated  to  form 
the  kerosene-vapor    in   the 
coil  C  and  is  then  let  into 
the    cylinder    through    the 
poppet-valve  P. 

This  valve  P  is  moved 
by  a  cam  in  such  a  way  as 
to  time  the  inlet  of  the  gas 
a  little  later  than  the  com- 
pleting of  the  exhaust  and 
a  little  later  than  the  be- 
ginning of  the  inlet  of  fresh 
air  from  the  crank-case.  In- 
cidentally the  engine,  like 
the  old  Day  engine — the 
original  two-cycle  engine  FIG.  194.— Section  of  motor, 

uses  no  inlet-valve   to    the 

crank-case,  but  uses  an  air-port  which  is  uncovered  by  the  pis- 
ton at  the  highest  point  of  its  stroke. 

In  starting  up,  a  secondary  vaporizing  coil  S,  in  the  supply-pipe 
outside  the  cylinder,  is  heated  by  a  blow-torch.  This  coil  S  is  kept 
heated  only  until  such  time  as  the  heat  from  the  explosions  gets  the 
coil  C  in  condition. 

The  advantages  of  using  kerosene  in  vapor  form  are  very  pro- 
nounced. In  this  condition  it  makes  a  perfect  mixture,  free  from 
fine  drops  of  liquid — such  mixtures  permit  of  much  higher  com- 
pression and  much  higher  economy  than  is  possible  with  oil  spurted 
directly  into  the  cylinder.  A  mixture  of  air  and  kerosene  "gas" 
burns  without  depositing  soot. 

This  engine  is  also  designed  with  an  air-starting  device. 


218 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


This  starter  supplies  air  through  a  poppet-valve  moved  by  an 
eccentric,  and  since  the  air  must  pass  through  a  check-valve  before 
reaching  the  piston,  it  follows  that  the  engine  changes  automatically 
from  the  air-starter  to  fuel-burning. 

No  vapor  can  reach  the  crank  chamber  from  the  vaporizing  coil 
C,  as  the  mechanically  operated  inlet- vapor  valve  P  is  closed  dur- 
ing the  up-stroke  of  the 
piston,  arid  the  check- 
valve  V  prevents  vapor 
from  passing  to  the  crank 
chamber  from  the  kero- 
sene tank.  The  air-inlet 
port  at  A  furnishes  suffi- 
cient air  at  or  during  the 
terminal  of  the  up-stroke 
of  the  piston. 

The  air  for  starting  is 
compressed  in  a  small 
cylinder  operated  by  hand 
or  in  multicylinder  motors 
by  the  motor  for  storage. 

THE    MILLOT    OIL-ENGINE 

This  is  of  French  origin 
and  has  some  novel  fea- 
tures of  construction.  The 
oil,  which  is  kept  in  a 
separate  reservoir,  comes 
into  a  chamber  where  it 
is  kept  at  a  constant  level. 


FIG.  195. — Millot  engine,  showing  vaporizer 
and  governor. 


The  oil  which  is  drawn  into  the  engine  passes  through  a  spray- 
ing device  to  a  very  small  opening  which  compels  the  oil  to  spurt 
out  forcibly.  This  spraying  is  made  still  more  active  by  the  air 
coming  from  the  valve  C  (Fig.  196; ,  this  valve  being  opened  by 
the  suction  from  the  descent  of  the  piston.  The  vaporized  oil 
arrives  by  the  opening  P  U  (Fig.  195),  in  the  gasifier  G,  which 
is  a  kind  of  cast-iron  bowl  kept  at  a  dark-red  heat  by  means  of 


TYPES   AND   DETAILS   OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      219 


an  oil-lamp  with  Bunsen  flame.  The  oil  in  vaporized  state  passes 
through  the  orifice  G  (Fig.  195)  into  the  compression  chamber  and 
then  into  the  cylinder. 

At  the  end  of  the  induction  stroke,  the  cylinder  and  the  com- 
pression chamber  are  filled  with  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air.  The  pis- 
ton, rising,  gives  a  high  compression  to  this  mixture  as  it  can  occupy 
a  volume  only  equal  to  that  of  the  compression  chamber.  The 
pressure  of  the  mixture  striking  upon  the  walls  of  the  gasifier 
G  (Fig.  196),  which  are  at  red  heat,  determines  the  time  of  explosion. 
After  a  few  minutes  of  running,  the  heat  produced  by  explosion 
is  sufficient  to  keep  the 
walls  at  red  heat  and  the 
lamp  L  can  then  be  re- 
moved. 

The  governor  is  a 
novel  feature  in  a  ver- 
tical engine,  it  being  of 
the  inertia  type.  This 
consists  of  a  stem  K,  fast- 
ened to  the  side  of  the 
escapement,  which  is 
pivoted  at  the  lower  end. 
During  normal  running, 
the  pawl  is  held  by  a 
spring  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion. The  catch  C  has 
an  oscillating  movement 
given  it  by  the  lever  Q,  which  is  driven  by  the  cam  R.  The  ten- 
sion of  the  spring  which  holds  the  catch  is  such  that  the  inertia  of 
the  weights  0  0  is  not  sufficient  to  prevent  the  catch  from  follow- 
ing this  movement  when  the  engine  turns  at  its  normal  speed; 
but  when  this  passes  the  proper  limit,  the  inertia  of  these  weights 
makes  the  catch  oscillate  and  leave  its  contact  with  the  stem  of 
the  escapement.  Consequently  the  valve  F  is  not  raised  by  the 
escapement  and  there  is  no  exhaust,  the  cylinder  retaining  the 
products  of  combustion  from  the  preceding  explosion.  No  ex- 
plosive mixture  is  drawn  in,  therefore,  and  no  ignition  can  be  pro- 
duced so  that  the  motor  slows  down.  When  the  engine  reaches  its 


FIG.  196. — Petroleum-engine  on  the  Millot  sys- 
tem; top  of  cylinder. 


220 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


normal  speed,  the  governor  ceases  to  act  and  exhaust  commences 
again. 

Fig.  197  is  a  cross  section  of  the  Wayne  gas  and  gasoline-engine, 
showing  the  position  and  operating  gear  of  the  gas-valve,  inlet-valve, 
and  exhaust-valve. 

The  operating  cam,  which  is  mounted  on  a  short  secondary 
shaft  geared  to  the  main  shaft,  throws  the  rocker-arm  to  the  left, 
this  movement  being  imparted  to  the  valve-rod  opens  the  exhaust- 
valve  A.  The  spring  D  returns  the  rod  when  it  is  released  by 
the  cam  and  opens  the  gas-valve  C,  as  the  spring  D  is  much  stronger 
than  the  seating  spring  on  the  gas-valve  stem.  The  gas-valve  de- 
livers fuel  to  the  valve  B, 

EaT 


which  is  opened  directly 
into  the  combustion  cham- 
ber by  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. Thus  during  a  nor- 
mal charging-stroke  the 
valve-rod  is  entirely  re- 
leased by  the  cam,  and 
by  means  of  the  spring 
D  holds  open  the  gas- 
valve,  which  it  releases 
at  the  end  of  this  stroke, 
and  the  rod  takes  an  in- 
termediate position  during 
the  compression  and  working  strokes.  At  the  end  of  the  working 
stroke  the  cam  comes  into  position  and  pushes  the  valve-rod  clear 
out,  thus  opening  the  exhaust. 

This  cycle  is  repeated  so  long  as  the  speed  is  at  or  near  the  nor- 
mal value,  but  when  the  speed  is  excessive  the  governor  raises  the 
end  of  a  latch,  which  engages  a  lug  on  the  rocker-arm  actuating  the 
valve-rod,  thus  holding  it  back  and  allowing  the  gas-valve  to  remain 
closed  so  that  air  only  enters  the  cylinder  through  the  admission- 
valve. 

In  Figs.  198  and  199  are  shown  the  details  of  the  valve  gear, 
valves,  and  ignition  gear  of  the  Blaisdell  double-acting  four-cycle 
engine,  having  two  cylinders  placed  tandem. 

The  valves,  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  198,  are  of  the  poppet  type, 


FIG.  197. — Cross  section  of  cylinder  and  valves 
of  the  Wayne  engine. 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      221 

working  vertically,  and  are  held  to  the  seats  by  means  of  springs. 
The  inlet-valve,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  located  immediately  above  the 
exhaust-valve,  thus  causing  the  incoming  charge  to  impinge  upon 
it  and  to  pass  over  the  exhaust- valve,  thus  keeping  the  temperature 
comparatively  low  and  rendering  it  unnecessary  to  circulate  water 
through  the  valves.  The  inlet-valve  is  placed  in  a  cage,  which  is 
readily  removable,  thus  exposing  the  exhaust-valve,  the  latter  being 
readily  removed  through  the  opening  normally  filled  by  the  cage. 


FIG.  198.— Section  of  valves. 


FIG.  199.— Valve  gear. 


The  exhaust- valve  chamber  is  water-jacketed,  thus  preventing  the 
overheating  of  its  stem  and  guide. 

The  igniter  and  valves  are  operated  by  means  of  a  cam  on  the 
side-shaft,  one  cam  being  used  to  operate  both  the  inlet  and  exhaust- 
valves.  The  igniter  mechanism  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  199  and  rep- 
resents a  special  form  of  make-and-break  contact  operated  by  the 
eccentric.  The  eccentric-rod  rests  in  a  small  forked  timing  lever 
forming  one  arm  of  the  rock-shaft,  which,  however,  is  not  a  part  of 
the  igniter  proper,  thus  permitting  the  latter  to  be  removed  without 
disconnecting  or  otherwise  disturbing  any  other  parts. 


222 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR      223 

The  engine  is  started  with  compressed  air,  one  cylinder  being 
operated  by  air  pressure  until  the  other  cylinder  receives  an  im- 
pulse, after  which  the  engine  continues  to  run  on  its  own  fuel. 


THE  NURNBERG  GAS-ENGINE 

The  following  illustrations  present  the  more  important,  as  well 
as  the  especially  interesting,  features  of  the  Nurnberg  gas-engine  aa 
built  by  the  Allis-Chalmers  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  This  en- 
gine has  been  designed  especially  for  the  use  of  blast-furnace  gas  and 
consequently  all  the  details  of  construction  have  been  developed 
with  a  view  to  adapting  the  engine  to  the  perfect  utilization  of  this 
fuel,  as  well  as  coke-oven  gas,  producer  gas,  and  Mond  gas. 

Thus  far  the  Nurnberg  engine  has  been  built  in  large  sizes  only, 
viz.,  in  units  ranging  from  250  to  3,200  actual  horse-power. 

The  engine  is  of  the  four-cycle,  double-acting  type.  The  opera- 
tions taking  place  at  each 
end  of  each  cylinder  are  on 
the  Otto  cycle,  hence  the 
results  accomplished  in  each 
end  of  the  cylinder  are  the 
same  as  in  the  single-act- 
ing Otto  engine,  and,  there- 
fore, each  end  of  the  cy- 
linder is  provided  with 
three  distinct  valves.  First, 
the  inlet-valve,  admitting 
either  air  or  combustible 
mixture  into  the  cylinder; 


FIG.  201o— Section  of  piston-rod  guide. 


second,  the  gas-valve,  regulating  the  amount  and  period  of  gas 
admission  to  the  cylinder  for  each  impulse;  and  third,  the  ex~ 
haust-valve. 

Fig.  200  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  engine,  showing  the  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  the  interior  and  the  location  of  the  valves,  while 
Figs.  201  and  202  are  cross  sections  between  the  cylinders  and 
through  the  valve  chambers,  respectively.  The  inlet  and  exhaust- 
valves  are  of  the  usual  poppet  type,  positively  operated  by  a  simple 
form  of  valve  gear,  a  general  view  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  203. 


224 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  inlet- valves  open  approximately  when  the  crank  reaches  one 
dead  centre  and  close  approximately  when  the  crank  reaches  the 

opposite  dead  centre.  The 
gas-valve  is  operated 
by  a  governor-controlled 
mechanism  illustrated  in 
Fig.  202.  This  type  of 
gear  is  what  is  known  as 
the  "Marx"  patent  gear, 
which  has  proved  to  be 
especially  well  adapted  to 
operating  the  valves  of 
large-sized  gas-engines. 

Referring  to  Fig.  203, 
the  forked  rod  A  is  ac- 
tuated by  an  eccentric  on 
the  lay-shaft,  the  upper 
end  of  A  being  carried  by 
the  swinging  link  B.  To 
the  pin  C  is  pivoted  the 
hook  D,  which  engages 
the  outer  end  of  the  rolling 
lever  E,  the  inner  end  of 
which  is  connected  to  the 
gas- valve  stem.  Lever  F 
is  provided  with  a  curved 
upper  edge,  upon  which 
lever  E  rests.  One  end 
of  the  lever  F  is  fulcrumed 
upon  a  pin  fixed  in  the 
valve-bonnet,  while  the 
outer  end  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  the  arm  G, 
which  is  actuated  by  the 

governor  through  the  arm 
FIG.  203. — Gas-valve  mechanism. 

When  the  outer  end  of  lever  E  is  drawn  downward  by  the  hook 
D,  the  rocking  motion  imparted  to  E  lifts  the  inner  end,  and  with  it 


FIG.  202. — Section  through  valves. 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      225 


the  gas- valve,  the  hook  releasing  the  lever  E  at  the  end  of  the  pis- 
ton stroke.  The  easy  seating  of  the  gas- valve  is  assured  by  means  of 
the  dash-pot  J.  It  will  be  seen  that  as  the  outer  end  of  the  lever  F 
is  lowered  by  the  governor,  the  motion  of  lever  E  is  modified  so  that 
the  gas-valve  is  lifted  later  in  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Thus,  by 
varying  the  position  of  the  lever  F  the  opening  of  the  gas-valve 
can  be  effected  at  any  point  in  the  stroke  according  to  the  power 
demand  and  the  consequent  speed  and  position  of  the  governor. 
The  gas-valve  opens  quick-  c 

ly  and  closes  instanta- 
neously, but  is  prevented 
from  pounding  the  seat  by 
the  dash-pot.  The  ex- 
haust-valve is  opened  by 
a  simple  rolling  lever 
operated  by  an  eccentric 
on  the  lay-shaft  as  shown. 

The  results  obtained 
by  this  simple  valve  gear 
are  the  opening  and  clos- 
ing of  the  air  and  mixing 
valves,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
haust-valves, while  the 
crank  is  close  to  the  dead 
centres,  and  the  opening 
of  the  gas-valve  earlier  or 
later  in  the  stroke  accord- 
ing to  the  variations  in 
the  load.  The  retardation 
of  the  opening  of  the  gas- 
valve  is  accompanied  by  a  proportionate  throttling  of  the  gas. 

The  Westinghouse  vertical  motor  is  a  model  of  compactness 
and  is  shown  in  sectional  detail  in  Fig.  204,  and  as  built  for  natural 
gas  has  a  usual  compression  of  120  pounds,  with  an  explosive 
pressure  of  350  pounds  per  square  inch,  exhausting  at  30  pounds  at 
full  load,  which  decreases  as  the  load  falls. 

All  valve  movements  are  operated  from  a  single-cam  shaft  A. 
One  of  the  features  in  this  design  is  the  location  of  the  admission 


FIG.  204. — Section  of  Westinghouse  vertical 
engine. 


226 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OILENGINES 


and  exhaust-valves  in  line,  and  both  operated  by  push-rods  and 
levers  from  cams  on  the  shaft  A,  both  valves  being  held  to  their 
seats  by  springs.  The  admission-valve  B  is  mounted  in  a  bonnet 
C,  and  can  be  removed  without  removing  other  parts.  This  also 
allows  room  for  taking  out  the  exhaust-valve  and  its  seat  F  when 
required. 

Duplex  hammer-spark  ignition  is  employed  and,  when  conven- 
ient, with  a  direct  reduced  current  from  a  lighting  circuit.  A  con- 
spicuous feature  in  this  design  is  the  housing  of  the  cranks,  trunk- 
pistons,  cam-shaft,  cams,  and  push-rod  rollers;  all  of  which  can  be 
quickly  got  at  through  movable  doors  in  the  box-frame. 

In  the  sectional  view  (Fig.  205)  are  shown  some  of  the  details  of 
construction  of  the  double  and  opposite-cylinder  engine  of  the  Amer- 


FIG.  205. — Sectional  view  of  one-half  of  engine. 

ican  type  of  the  Crossley  engine.  Some  notable  features  of  this 
design  are  the  casting  of  the  cylinder,  water-jacket,  cylinder-head, 
and  exhaust- valve  chamber  in  separate  pieces  and  bolting  them 
together.  This  allows  of  the  novelty  of  water- cooling  ribs  on  the 
cylinder.  The  water  cooling  of  the  piston  for  large  engines  is  ac- 
complished by  circulating  sections  in  the  piston  and  a  flexible  pipe- 
connection  to  traverse  with  the  piston. 

The  crank-shaft  has  a  centre- crank  and  the  connecting-rods 
work  on  one  crank-pin,  one  rod  having  a  single  box  and  the  other  a 
forked  end  with  a  box  in  each  fork. 


.s  . 

-^    •- 


o 

8.8 


Q  -2 


1  1 
II 
II 


227 


228 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


In  Fig.  206  are  shown  the  details  of  a  double  engine  working 
upon  a  single  crank  and  pin,  one  rod  having  a  single  box  and  the 
other  a  forked  end  with  two  boxes. 

In  Fig.  207  is  shown  a  section  of  a  water-cooled  balanced  ex- 
haust-valve used  on  the  American  Crossley  engine. 

It  is  of  the  poppet  type  and  the  relation  between  the  valve  and 
its  seat  is  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  mushroom 
form  of  valve.     An  oscillating  arm,  receiving  mo- 
tion from  the  cam  on  the  secondary  shaft,  oper- 
-ates  the  valve.     The  valve  and  stem  are  hollow 
and  water  for  the  purpose  of  internal  cooling  is 
conveyed  through  the  pipe  shown  at  the  top  in 
the  cut.      The  water   escapes   around  this    pipe 
through   a  second  pipe,  the  direction  being  in- 
dicated by  arrows.      This  valve  has  the  unusual 
advantage  of  travelling  in  double  guides,  one  on 
each   side   of   the  exhaust,  which   prevents   the 
pressure   from  within   from   throwing  it  out   of 
alignment  with  the  seat.     Oil-ducts,  for  the  pur- 
pose oL  lubricating  the  guides  of  the  valve-stem 
FIG.  207.— Water-    and  valve-shell,  are  shown  in  the  cut.     The  ex- 
cooled  balanced   naust_valve  chamber  is  a  separate  piece,  bolted  to 
the  under  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  can  be  taken  off 
without  interfering  with  any  other  working  parts  of  the  engine. 

In  Fig.  208  are  shown  the  vaporizer  and  water-cooled  valve 
chambers  of  the  new  Crossley  oil-engine.  It  is  essentially  a  kero- 
sene and  distillate-oil  engine,  but  a  claim  is  made  that  crude  oil 
may  be  equally  useful  as  explosive  fuel.  It  will  be  noticed  in  this 
design  that  an  air-snifting  valve  makes  a  water-spray  into  the 
vaporizer  near  to  the  oil-spray  inlet,  making  an  explosive  compound 
of  oil,  air,  and  water-atoms  to  be  ignited  by  compression  and  an 
igniter- tube  projecting  within  the  vaporizer,  as  shown  in  the  small 
cross  section. 

The  outside  ribs  on  the  vaporizer  facilitate  the  heating  of  the 
chamber  when  starting  and  are  also  for  regulating  the  temperature 
while  the  motor  is  running. 

The  water  element  in  this  combination  of  explosive  fuel  allows 
of  excessive  compression  without  preignition,  otherwise  possible. 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      229 

In  Fig.  209  is  represented  a  detailed  section  of  a  late  type  of  the 
Olds  gasoline-engine.     A  notable  feature,  apart  from  the  position 


AIR  SHIFTING 
VALVE 


SECTION  ON  X-X 

FIG.  208. — Section  of  vaporizer  and  valve  chamber.     New  Crossley. 

of  the  valve  chambers  in  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  is  the  making  of 
the  cylinder  and  jacket  in  two  pieces  bolted  together  by  contact 
with  the  head,  which  is  bolted  to  lugs  on  the  cylinder. 


FIG.  209.— Section  of  type  A,  Olds  engine. 


230 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


WATER  OUTLET 

I 


WATER  INLET- 


STATIONARY 
ELECTRODE 


-    "vVATER  JACKET 


The  inlet-valve  and  seat  are  encased  in  a  double-seated  flanged 
cage,  which  is  easily  removed  to  allow  the  exhaust- valve  to  be  drawn 
out  through  the  opening. 

The  exhaust- valve  is  operated  by  a  cam  on  the  reducing  shaft, 
two  bell-cranks,  and  a  push-rod. 

In  Fig.  210  is  shown  a  vertical  section  of  the  Walrath  three-cylin- 
der engine  of  the  four-cycle  type,  and  in  Figs.  211  and  212  a  plan  of 

the  cylinder-head  and  valve- 
levers  and  a  vertical  section 
of  the  water-cooled  exhaust- 
valve  as  applied  to  the  larger 
engines  of  50  horse-power. 

The  general  style  of  con- 
struction is  shown  in  Fig. 
210,  which  gives  a  cross- 
sectional  view  of  the  engines 
with  cylinders  12  X  12  inches 
or  smaller.  The  base,  cast  in 
one  piece,  is  bored  to  receive 
the  cylinders,  crank,  and  cam- 
shaft bearings.  The  main 
bearings,  being  a  separate  cast- 
ing made  to  fit  a  correspond- 
ing circular  bore  in  the  base, 
can  readily  be  removed  with- 
out disturbing  the  crank-shaft. 
The  cylinders  are  bolted 
on  the  top  of  the  base,  fitting 
into  the  bore  made  to  receive 
them,  as  shown. 

FIG.  210.— Cross  section  of  vertical  engine.  The   valves>  Qf   the   poppet 

type,  are  two  in  number,  one  serving  as  the  inlet  for  the  explosive 
mixture  and  the  other  acting  as  the  exhaust-valve.  In  all  en- 
gines of  over  10  horse-power  the  valves  are  placed  in  cages  which 
fit  into  the  cylinder-head.  By  having  the  joint  between  the  cages 
and  the  head  ground,  it  is  the  work  of  but  a  few  minutes  to  remove 
either  valve  when  desired.  In  the  larger  engines  a  special  water- 
cooled  valve,  illustrated  in  Fig.  212,  is  employed. 


TYPES   AND  DETAILS   OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      231 

The  valves  are  operated  by  a  cam-shaft  revolving  at  just  one- 
half  the  speed  of  the  crank-shaft.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  train 
of  three  spur  gears,  which,  with  those  used  to  drive  the  governor, 
are  the  only  gears  used  on  the  engine.  This  cam-shaft  operates 
both  the  valves  and  the  igniter  for  all  of  the  cylinders. 

The  pistons  are  extremely  long  to  give  enough  surface  to  reduce 
the  wear  on  the  cylinder  and  pistons  to  a  minimum.  This  is  a  vital 
point  in  cases  where  the  piston  must  perform  the  additional  services 
of  a  cross-head,  for  when  short,  undue  wear  will  result,  giving  ne- 
cessity for  extensive  repairs  and  large  repair  bills. 


WATER  INLET 


FIG.  211. — Cylinder-head  and  valve- 
levers. 


FIG.  212. — Water-cooled  exhaust- 
valve. 


To  reduce  the  friction  and  wear  on  the  pistons  from  the  angu- 
larity of  short  connecting  rods  they  are  all  made  three  strokes  in 
length.  The  boxes  at  both  ends  are  of  bronze,  while  the  rod  itself 
is  of  forged  steel. 

The  igniter  is  of  the  break-type  and  consists  of  a  casing  holding 
two  electrodes,  one  of  which  is  stationary  and  insulated  from  the 
main  body  of  the  casting.  The  other  electrode  is  movable  and 
operated  by  a  cam,  which  causes  it  to  make  and  break  contact  with 
the  insulated  electrode.  The  contact  points  are  composed  of  a 
special  metal,  which  is  adapted  to  withstand  great  heat. 

The  governor  is  of  the  fly-ball  type,  driven  by  means  of  bevel 


232 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


gears.  It  operates  a  piston- valve  which  regulates  the  amount  of 
explosive  mixture  required  for  each  impulse  to  maintain  a  steady 
speed  under  all  conditions  and  variations  of  load.  This  method  of 
governing  gives  an  impulse  every  second  revolution  for  the  one- 
cylinder  type,  every  revolution  in  the  two-cylinder,  and  every  two- 
thirds  of  a  revolution  in  the  three-cylinder  type,  no  matter  what  the 
load  may  be. 

A  starting  device  is  provided  upon  all  engines  above  20  horse- 
power, and  can  be  supplied  on  the  smaller  sizes.    An  air-pump,  gen- 


CHARGE  VOL=  1 


COVPRECGION  VOL=  25 


EXPANSION  VOL  1.7 


FIG.  213. — The  Lister  two-cylinder  motor. 

erally  driven  by  a  small  pulley  on  the  engine  crank-shaft,  charges 
a  storage  tank  with  air  at  a  pressure  of  from  100  to  200  pounds. 
A  starter-lever  of  the  piston  type,  operated  -by  a  cam,  admits  the  air 
above  the  piston,  which  moves  downward.  The  valve  then  opens 
communication  between  the  engine-cylinder  and  the  atmosphere, 
which  causes  the  air  to  be  exhausted.  The  engine  goes  through  a 
series  of  such  operations  until  an  explosion  of  the  gases  takes  place. 
In  Fig.  213  we  illustrate  a  two-cycle  design  of  English  origin 
(the  Lister),  in  which  two  pistons  are  connected  to  a  single  crank- 
pin,  by  which  a  direct  impulse  is  given  to  the  crank  when  it  is  on  the 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS   OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      233 

ceatre.     The  three  positions  of  the  pistons  and  crank-pin  are  shown 
in  the  three  sections  of  the  cut. 

It  will  be  seen  that  two  cylinders,  A  and  B,  are  arranged  parallel 
to  each  other  above  the  crank-shaft,  A  being  the  exhaust  and  B  the 
inlet-cylinder,  connected  by  a  common  compression  chamber  at 
their  inner  ends.  The  pistons  are  joined  by  the  connecting  rods,  R1 
and  R2,  to  two  corners  of  the  triangular  frame,  as  shown,  the  other 
corner  being  attached  to  the  crank-pin  C.  The  movement  of  the 
frame  is  constrained  by  the  radius-rod  L,  the  other  end  of  which  is 
jointed  to  the  casing  of  the  engine.  Ignition  of  the  compressed 
charge  takes  place  when  the  pistons  are  in  the  position  shown  by 
2.  The  crank  rotates  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  so  that  piston 
B  travels  faster  than  piston  A,  and  has  approached  the  end  of  its 
out-stroke  by  the  time  the  latter  piston  has  arrived  at  the  exhaust- 
port.  Their  positions  are  then  as  in  3.  When  the  exhaust-port 
is  uncovered  the  pressure  drops  to  atmospheric,  and  piston  B, 
then  passing  an  inlet-port  communicating  with  the  enclosed  crank 
chamber,  allows  a  volume  of  air  to  pass  through  the  check-valve 
into  the  cylinder  B,  in  order  to  scavenge  the  cylinders  from  the 
products  of  the  previous  explosion.  The  piston  B  then  commences 
its  stroke  again  in  advance  of  piston  A,  forcing  out  a  quantity  of  air, 
and  nearing  the  end  of  its  in-stroke  at  the  time  the  exhaust-port  is 
closed  by  piston  A.  The  position  of  the  pistons  before  compression 
is  shown  in  1.  Shortly  before  the  closing  of  the  exhaust-port  a 
charge  of  gas  or  gasoline  is  pumped  into  the  cylinder  B,  forming  an 
explosive  mixture  with  the  air  previously  drawn  in.  In  engines, 
the  close  governing  of  which  is  not  essential,  the  charge  may  be 
drawn  into  the  crank  chamber  with  the  air,  and  thence  delivered  to 
the  cylinder,  thus  doing  away  with  the  necessity  for  pump-charging, 
though  the  advantages  of  scavenging  are  lost  by  this  arrangement. 
The  mixture  is  compressed  as  the  pistons  approach  the  upper  end  of 
the  cylinders,  ignition  is  effected  by  any  of  the  usual  methods,  and 
the  cycle  is  repeated  as  before,  one  explosion  taking  place  to  every 
revolution  of  the  crank-shaft.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  initial 
volume  of  the  charge  is  increased  by  from  50  to  70  per  cent,  before 
the  exhaust,  allowing  more  work  to  be  obtained  from  the  fuel  to- 
gether with  a  lower  exhaust  pressure.  The  ratio  of  expansion 
volume  to  compression  volume  is  as  6  to  8.  The  design  permits  of 


234 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


the  connecting  rods  being  kept  very  short,  and  they  are  so  propor- 
tioned that  at  no  point  of  the  stroke  do  they  make  a  greater  angle 
with  the  centre  line  of  the  cylinders  than  5° ;  thus  the  pressure  on  the 
cylinder  walls  and  the  consequent  wear  are  very  small.  The  com- 


FIG.  214. — Section  Weiss  kerosene-oil  motor. 

bined  effective-power  strokes  of  the  two  pistons  are  approximately 
equal  to  1.8  times  the  crank-stroke,  the  compression  portion  of  the 
return-stroke  amounting  to  1.2  times  the  crank-stroke. 

In  Fig.  214  is  illustrated  the  working  detail  of  the  Weiss  kerosene- 
oil  engine  in  a  sectional  elevation  showing  the  conical  vaporizer 
E  D  enclosed  in  a  shell  for  confining  the  lamp  flame  when  starting 
and  to  keep  the  outer  walls  hot  when  the  engine  is  running. 


FIG.  215. — Oil-pump  and  pick  blade. 

A  front  view  of  the  vaporizer  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner 
of  the  cut  shows  the  extended  web  surface.  The  small  spring- 
held  oil-valve  at  h  holds  the  oil  between  it  and  the  pump  intact 
during  the  impulse-stroke.  The  small  oil-pump  at  g  is  operated 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR     235 

by  the  pick-blade  c,  with  a  hit-or-miss  charge,  governed  by  the 
momentum  of  a  small  weight  sliding  on  an  inclined  plane,  the 
amount  of  charge  and  the  interruption  being  readily  adjustable. 

In  Fig.  215  is  shown  an  enlarged  section  of  the  oil-pump  and 
pick-blade.  The  injection  by  the  movement  of  the  motor-piston  is 
of  pure  air  drawn  into  the  crank-case  by  the  forward  motion  of  the 
piston  and  compressed ;  when  at  the  opening  of  the  cylinder-port  at 
the  end  of  the  impulse-stroke,  the  compressed  air  is  injected  into 
and  guided  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder  to  meet  the  vaporized  oil 
in  the  vaporizing  cone.  Compression  and  the  heat  of  the  vapor- 
izer fire  the  charge  at  the  proper  moment. 


FIG.  216. — Sectional  elevation  of  Bollinckx  gas-engine. 

In  Figs.  216,  217,  218  we  illustrate  some  of  the  details  of  a  novel 
type  in  a  four-cycle  gas-engine  of  the  scavenging  type,  made  by  the 
Societe  Anonyme  des  Moteurs  a  Gaz  A.  Bollinckx,  at  Buysinghen, 
Belgium,  in  which  compression  is  carried  up  to  165  pounds  per 
square  inch,  and  a  special  scavenging  arrangement  expels  the  burnt 
gases  after  the  explosion,  thereby  increasing  the  efficiency  and  pre- 
venting premature  explosion.  The  governor  is  of  the  hit-or-miss 
type,  and  ignition  is  effected  by  electric  spark,  produced  by  a  mag- 
neto machine. 


236 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  frame  is  very  heavy  and  strong,  being  cast  in  one  piece  in 
the  smaller  sizes,  and  is  designed  to  serve  as  an  oil  catcher.  The 
bearing  brasses  are  in  four  parts,  of  cast  iron  lined  with  white 
metal.  The  cylinder,  which  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  216,  is 
separate  from  the  frame,  and  the  latter  is  provided  with  spiral 
fins  in  the  water-jacket,  so  that  the  cooling  water  is  compelled 
to  follow  a  spiral  path  round  the  cylinder,  producing  the  maxi- 
mum effect.  On  withdrawing 
the  cylinder  it  is  easy  to  clean 
the  water  spaces  of  sediment 
and  incrustation.  The  crank- 
shaft is  of  steel  and  is  provided 
with  rings  to  receive  oil  from 
a  fixed  lubricator,  the  oil 
being  driven  into  the  crank- 
pin  by  centrifugal  force.  Com- 
plete automatic  lubrication  has 
been  avoided,  as  the  makers 
believe  that  the  attendants 
trust  too  implicitly  in  such 
devices,  with  the  consequence 
that  accidents  result  The 
crank-shaft  is  very  massive, 
and  is  fully  counterbalanced  by  counterweights  attached  to  the 
crank-webs.  The  crank  end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  fitted  with 
phosphor-bronze  bushings,  and  the  small  end  with  a  cylindrical 
cast-iron  bushing,  working  on  a  pin  of  hardened  steel. 

The  piston,  as  usual,  is  provided  with  a  large  surface  bearing  on 
the  part  of  the  cylinder  which  is  not  directly  heated  by  the  hot 
gases,  the  diameter  of  the  piston  being  reduced  at  the  back  end. 
Only  one  ring  is  exposed  to  the  highest  temperature,  the  remainder 
working  in  the  cooler  portion  of  the  cylinder.  The  admission  and 
exhaust-valves  work  vertically,  as  shown  in  Fig.  217,  the  former 
above  the  latter,  and  are  especially  easy  to  inspect,  while  their  ar- 
rangement tends  to  prevent  wear.  A  drain-cock,  shown  in  Fig.  216, 
permits  the  removal  of  oil,  which  might  collect  in  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  and  cause  premature  explosions.  The  valves  are  driven 
by  means  of  a  cam-shaft  and  cam  B  (Fig.  217),  actuated  from  the 


FIG.  217. — Section  through  admission 
and  exhaust-valves. 


TYPES   AND   DETAILS  OF   THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      237 


main  shaft  by  skew  gear;  at  the  end  of  the  explosion-stroke  the 
exhaust-valve  is  opened  and  allows  the  burnt  gases  to  escape,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  return-stroke  the  admission-valve  is  opened  to  admit 
the  scavenging  current  of  air,  which  is  sucked  in  by  virtue  of  the 
high  velocity  and  inertia  of  the  exhaust  gases,  producing  a  partial 
vacuum  in  the  cylinder.  The  vertical  arrangement  of  the  valves  is 
more  costly  than  other  systems,  but  has  been  preferred  on  account 
of  its  superiority. 

The   cylinder  is  lubricated  by  a  special  sight-feed  lubricator, 
with  a  catch-feeder  for  the  piston-pin. 

Ignition  is  produced  by  means  of  a  small  magneto-dynamo  car- 
ried on  the  engine.  Inside  the  cylinder  there  is  a  fixed  insulated 
contact  and  a  finger,  which  normally  rests  against  the  contact, 
under  the  control  of  a  spring.  The  armature  of  the  magneto  C 
(Fig.  218)  is  pushed  round  through  an  angle  of  about  90°  by  lever 
A,  operated  by  the  cam-shaft,  and  on  its  release  is  quickly  pulled 
back  by  spring  R,  thus 
causing  a  momentary 
but  powerful  current  to 
flow  through  the  finger 
to  the  contact  in  the 
cylinder;  at  the  same 
moment  the  finger  is 
suddenly  drawn  from 
the  contact,  breaking 
the  circuit  and  produc- 
ing a  very  intense  spark. 


FIG.  218. — Ignition  mechanism. 


Moreover,  the  spark  is  just  as  intense  when  the  engine  is  being 
started,  and  the  compression  is  weak,  as  when  the  engine  is  run- 
ning at  full  speed.  The  action  of  the  igniting  device  is  a  most 
novel  one  and  well  worthy  of  study  in  regard  to  the  part  revolu- 
tion of  the  armature  of  the  magneto  generator,  taking  place  at  a 
uniform  speed  at  the  starting  of  the  engine,  however  slow,  and  the 
trip  of  the  circuit-breaker  at  a  positive  and  adjustable  time. 

The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  type,  with  provision  for  adjust- 
ing the  speed  while  running,  and  actuates  a  small  fork  which  deter- 
mines whether  the  admission-valve  shall  be  opened  or  remain  closed 
for  one  or  more  cycles. 


238  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

THE    SCAVENGING    ENGINE 

A  slight  increase  in  the  power  of  an  explosive  motor  is  claimed 
from  the  discharge  of  the  products  of  combustion  in  the  clearance 
space  at  the  moment  of  the  close  of  the  exhaust-stroke,  by  holding 
open  the  exhaust-valve  until  the  crank  is  slightly  passed  the  centre 
and  mechanically  giving  a  free  opening  to  the  air-inlet  valve  or  a 
supplementary  valve  arranged  to  give  a  free  air-inlet  at  the  right 
moment. 

The  addition  of  a  lengthy  exhaust-pipe,  with  bends  instead  of 
elbows,  gives  the  rapid-flowing  exhaust  a  momentum  that  produces 
a  slight  vacuum  or  draught  in  the  combustion  chamber  and  through 
the  air-inlet  valve,  which  sweeps  out  the  products  of  combustion  and 
fills  the  clearance  space  with  fresh  air,  while  the  piston  is  nearly 
stationary  at  the  end  of  the  exhaust-stroke.  An  exhaust-pipe  of 
about  100  times  the  length  of  the  stroke,  with  the  muffle-pot  at  the 
end  of  the  pipe,  has  been  found  to  give  the  best  effect.  A  saving  of 
about  20  per  cent,  per  brake  horse-power  has  been  shown  by  scav 
enging  over  non-scavenging  engines  as  constructed  by  the  Crossleys 
in  England.  For  this  type  the  valves  must  be  located  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  cylinder  and  so  arranged  that  the  gases  of  combustion 
will  pass  out  with  as  little  friction  as  possible.  The  Crossley  four- 
cycle scavenging  engine  was  designed  with  curved  cylinder-head  and 
piston-head  to  conform  to  least  friction,  but  any  motor  with  valves 
in  line  on  opposite  sides  of  the  cylinder  can  be  given  the  scavenging 
effect,  more  or  less  efficient  according  to  the  valve  and  exhaust-pipe 
arrangement. 

Nor  is  it  necessary  to  adjust  the  inlet-valve  for  air  alone  to  enter 
at  the  moment  of  scavenging,  as  there  can  be  but  little  loss  in  scav- 
enging with  the  explosive  charge.  A  considerable  increase  in  the 
explosive  pressure  may  be  obtained,  with"  a  consequent  increase  in 
the  power  of  the  motor,  from  a  full  charge  of  explosive  elements. 

COOLING   RADIATORS   FOR   WATER-JACKETED    AUTOMOBILE    MOTORS 

Experiments  in  cooling  the  water  of  the  cylinder-jackets  of 
automobiles  has  shown  that  a  dead-black  surface  is  the  best  liberator 
of  heat  from  the  circulating  water  and  that  black-iron  pipe  is  supe- 


TYPES  AND  DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      239 


rior  to  copper  or  brass.  If  the  iron  pipe  is  tightly  wound  with  No.  10 
black-iron  wire  one  fourth  of  an  inch  apart,  the  efficiency  of  the 
cooling-coil  will  be  largely  increased. 

Rapid  circulation  of  the  water  is  also  a  factor  of  the  best  work  of 
the  radiator.  The  proportion  of  heat-unit  power  in  an  automobile 
varies  greatly  with  the  speed,  as  does  also  the  air-cooling  effect; 
so  that  at  all  speeds  a  given-size  radiator  should  control  an  even 
water  temperature. 

The  proportion  of  total  radiating  surface  in  the  cooling  coils  when 
placed  in  front  with  a  free  access  of  air  varies  somewhat  with  makers, 
but  many  approximate  30  square  inches  for  each  square  inch  of 
heating  surface  that  is  water-jacketed  in  the  cylinders. 

The  driving  of  a  fan  behind  the  radiator  for  drawing  air  through 
it  when  hill-climbing,  or  when  the  wind  is  strong  in  the  direction  the 
automobile  is  running,  is  one  of  the  later  devices  and  a  much-needed 
improvement. 

THE   FAN-COOLED   MOTOR 

In  Fig.  219  is  shown  a  fly-wheel  fan  consisting  of  light  wings  at- 
tached to  the  front  face  of  a  fly-wheel,  and  the  wheel  and  fan  encased 
to  direct  the  air-blast  directly  on  to  the 
motor-head  and  cylinder  air-cooling 
flanges.  This  system  has  been  the 
subject  of  English  experiments  with 
the  following  results: 

When  enclosed  in  a  suitable  case, 
arranged  to  concentrate  the  whole  blast 
on  the  engine,  it  took  only  ^  °f  a 
horse-power  at  full  speed,  and  gave  a 
blast  of  25  to  28  miles  per  hour.  It 
kept  the  engine  rather  cooler  than 
when  running  full  speed  on  the  road 
without  the  fan. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  no  air- 
cooled  engine  can  work  at  full  power 
continuously  without  overheating,  ex- 
cept when  running  at  a  very  high  speed 
with  a  light  weight  on  a  level  track,  and 


FIG.  219. — Motor-driven  air- 
blast. 


240  GAS,  GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 

with  a  high  gear  suitable  only  for  racing.  Where  such  a  machine 
is  required  to  climb  hills  on  a  low  or  medium  gear,  some  makers  fit 
a  little  fan  to  stir  the  air  around  the  head  of  the  engine,  but  the  ma- 
jority are  reverting  to  water-cooling  as  the  only  satisfactory  method. 
It  seems  to  be  generally  considered  that  the  power  wasted  in  driv- 
ing the  fan  is  greater  than  the  power  gained  by  more  effective  cool- 
ing. This  misconception  arises  chiefly  from  inefficient  methods 
of  constructing  the  fan  and  applying  the  cooling  blast.  The  fly- 
wheel fan  absorbed  so  little  power  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  detect 
or  measure  the  power  absorbed.  By  employing  a  small  electric 
motor  to  run  the  fly-wheel  alone  in  its  bearings  (the  piston  and  the 
rest  of  the  engine  gear  being  removed)  with  and  without  the  fan 
attached,  it  appeared  that  the  power  absorbed  at  2,000  revolutions 
did  not  exceed  -^  of  a  horse-power,  which  is  quite  negligible  in 
comparison  with  other  losses.  This  very  small  outlay  of  power, 
properly  applied,  makes  all  the  difference,  when  carrying  a  load  of 
five  hundred  weight  up  a  long  hill,  between  the  motor  overheating 
hopelessly  and  coming  to  a  stop  in  the  first  half-mile,  and  racing  up 
the  whole  three  and  a  half  miles  at  full  throttle. 


THE    EXPLOSIVE-MOTOR   CLUTCH 

The  clutch  for  facilitating  the  starting  of  explosive  motors  has 
become  a  most  essential  adjunct  of  every  motor  plant.  The  later 
designs  are  automatic  in  their  action,  and  when  once  closed  with  the 
driven  machinery  increase  their  frictional  resistance  by  automatic 
closure.  The  creeping  of  clutches,  with  its  consequent  loss  of  power 
and  wear  due  to  the  impulse  operation  of  the  explosive  motor,  has 
been  overcome  and  creeping  is  automatically  arrested  by  increase  of 
frictional  pressure. 

In  Fig.  220  we  illustrate  a  front  view  and  in  Fig.  221  a  section 
of  a  pulley  or  gear-clutch  of  the  Carruthers-Fithian  type,  as  used  on 
motors  of  from  5  to  35  horse-power. 

The  hand-wheel  8  locks  the  screw-sleeve  9  by  pushing  and 
turning  the  wheel  in  the  direction  that  the  motor  is  running,  which 
pushes  the  cross-head  3  and  the  rack-bars  in,  revolving  the  gears 
4  on  right  and  left  screws,  which  throw  out  the  friction-shoes  to 
contact  with  the  friction  rim.  Then  drawing  the  hand  -wheel  back 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      241 

locks  the  wheel  in  the  dentals  of  the  nut  and  screw-sleeve,  when 
the  motion  of  the  motor  tightens  up  the  friction  automatically. 


FIG.  220. — Front  view  of  clutch. 


FIG.  221. — Section  of  clutch. 


In  Figs.  222  and  223  we  illustrate  their  worm-gear  clutch  for  the 
larger  motors  of  from  40  to  150  horse-power.  The  operation  of 
throwing  the  clutch  in  is  much  the  same  as  with  the  smaller  clutch, 
only  that  the  transmission  is  through  three  spur-gears  and  worm- 


FIG.  222. — View,  worm-gear  clutch. 


FIG.  223. — Section,  worm-gear 
clutch. 


gears  on  the  right  and  left  screws,  which  operate  the  friction-shoes 
with  great  power. 


242 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND   OIL-ENGINES 


Engine  Fly  Wheel,  Showing- 
[Method  of  Attaching  Clutch 


These  clutches  are  made  by  the  Carruthers-Fithian  Clutch  Com- 
pany, Grove  City,  Pa. 

In  Fig.  224  is  a  section  of  the  B  and  C  gas-engine  clutch,  which 
consists  of  three  main  parts :  the  pulley,  the  carrier,  which  is  bolted 
to  the  arms  of  the  engine  fly-wheel  and  acts  as  a  journal  of  the 
pulley,  and  the  gripping  mechanism,  which  consists  of  a  gripping 
plate,  spindle,  and  cam-levers.  The  clutch  has  a  side-grip  which 

eliminates  the  effect  of  centrifugal 
force  and  insures  a  positive  release. 
Two  rollers  are  mounted  on  the 
end  of  the  spindle,  which  works  in 
and  out  through  a  hole  in  the  grip- 
ping plate,  and  journaled  on  the  end 
is  the  operating  hand-wheel,  which 
can  be  held  in  the  hand  regardless 
of  the  speed  of  the  engine.  Bearing 
on  the  rollers  are  cam-levers,  which 
in  turn  are  pivoted  on  the  gripping 
plate,  and  lugs  on  the  levers  abut 
against  the  adjusting  screws.  These 
adjusting  screws  go  through  a  flange 
on  the  carrier,  and  are  locked  in  place 
by  lock-nuts,  which  also  hold  the 
gripping  plate  in  position. 

In  the  operation  of  the  clutch, 
when  the  spindle  is  pulled  out  against 
the  stop,  the  pulley  is  free  to  turn  on 
the  carrier-journal  and  when  pushed  in  is  gripped  in  a  circular 
vise  and  turns  with  the  engine  fly-wheel.  The  load  can  be  taken 
up  as  gradually  as  desired  by  pushing  in  the  hand-wheel  slowly, 
and  released  at  will  by  pulling  it  out.  Made  by  the  Whitman 
Manufacturing  Company,  Garwood,  N.  J. 


FIG.  224. — Gas-engine  clutch. 


REVERSING  GEAR   FOR  MARINE   ENGINES 

A  five-spur  gear-reversing  clutch  (Fig.  225)  is  much  in  use  on 
marine  engines  in  which  the  gears  are  constantly  oiled  by  the  dip- 
ping of  the  shaft  gears  in  the  oil-trough  below.  The  gear  on  the 


TYPES   AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      243 


FIG.  225. — Reversing  gear. 


wheel-shaft  is  fixed  to  the  shaft  and  driven  for  forward  motion  by  a 
friction-clutch  sleeve  feathered  on  the  end  of  the  motor-shaft. 

For  reversing,  the  yoke- 
lever  is  thrown  over  and 
engages  the  feathered 
sleeve  in  the  clutch  of  the 
idle  gear  on  the  motor- 
shaft,  when  the  back- 
motion  is  transmitted 
through  this  reverse-gear 
train  to  the  propeller- 
shaft.  The  clutches  are 
of  the  expanding  ring  type. 
Made  by  the  Michigan 
Motor  Company,  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich. 

A  simple  and  effective 
reversing  gear  for  marine  motors,  made  by  the  William  H.  Brodie 
Company,  45  Vesey  Street,  New  York  City,  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  226. 

It  consists  of  three  bevel  gears  and  a  clutch-sleeve;  the  sleeve  is 
on  the  motor-shaft  with  a  traverse  spline  and  friction-drive  on  the 
shaft  bevel  wheel. 

The  bevel  wheel  on  the  propeller-shaft  is  fixed  to  the  shaft,  while 

the  bevel  wheel  on  the  motor- 
shaft  runs  loose. 

The  third  bevel  wheel 
runs  on  a  pin  fixed  to  the 
box-frame.  When  the  lever 
is  thrown  forward  the  sleeve 
is  thrust  against  the  friction 
surface  of  the  propeller  gear 
and  the  other  bevel  gears 
run  loose.  When  the 
lever  is  thrown  to  the  cen- 
tre  all  the  gears  are  in  re- 
pose. For  the  back  motion  of  the  propeller,  the  lever  is  thrown 
back  and  the  sleeve  engages  the  friction  of  the  loose  motor 


244 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


gear  and  reverses  the  propeller  through  the  action  of  the  idler 
gear. 

In  Fig.  227  is  shown  a  sectional  detail  of  the  Mietz  and  Weiss  re- 
versing friction-clutch  as  used  on  their  marine  oil-engines. 

It  consists  of  an  oil-tight  cast-iron  drum  made  in  two  sections 
and  is  keyed  to  the  shaft. 

Inside  of  this  drum  is  a  steel  stub-shaft  on  the  inner  end  of  which 
is  keyed  a  friction-driving  cone.  There  are  two  friction-disks  with 


FIG.  227. — Mietz  and  Weiss  reversing  clutch. 

beveled  gears  and  interposed  pinions  on  a  bronze  sleeve,  which  is 
prevented  from  rotating  by  a  key  in  its  bearing,  screwed  to  the  base 
of  the  engine.  This  bronze  sleeve  is  free  to  slide  longitudinally. 
The  two  friction-disk  bevel  gears  rotate  around  this  sleeve  and  are 
held  in  place  by  means  of  split-washers. 

On  the  forward  motion  the  stub-shaft,  to  which  the  propeller- 
shaft  is  coupled,  is  brought  forward  by  means  of  the  lever,  and  the 
friction-driving  cone  on  its  inner  end  engages  the  inner  surface  of 
the  drum,  imparting  a  forward  motion  direct  from  the  engine-shaft 
to  the  propeller,  the  thrust  of  the  propeller  thus  acting  directly 
on  the  friction-cone  and  on  the  thrust-ball  collar  at  the  engine- 
bearing. 

On  the  reverse,  the  lever  is  thrown  back,  thus  releasing  the  for- 
ward thrust  of  the  driving  cone,  and  bringing  its  inner  friction 
surface  directly  in  contact  with  the  friction  surface  of  the  first  bevel 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      245 

gear,  while  the  second  gear,  engaging  the  inner  friction  of  the  drum, 
imparts  through  the  interposed  pinions  a  reversed  motion  to  the 
stub-shaft  and  thence  to  the  propeller. 

A  central  position  of  the  lever  disengages  the  friction  surface 
from  the  drum  entirely,  so  that  the  engine  may  continue  to  run  idle 
while  the  propeller  is  at  rest. 

The  thrust  of  the  propeller  on  the  forward  motion  exerts  its 
entire  force  directly  against  the  friction  surfaces,  without  the  assist- 
ance of  toggle-levers  or  cams,  the  whole  connection  from  the  engine 
to  the  propeller  acting  as  one  shaft.  On  the  reverse,  the  tension  of 
the  propeller  upon  the  shaft  exerts  its  force  against  the  reverse- 
gearing  and  inner-driving  surface  of  the  drum  in  the  desired  direc- 
tion. The  lever  must  be  locked  in  its  forward,  central,  or  reversing 
position. 

SPEED   GEARS   FOR  AUTOMOBILES 

Fig.  228  illustrates  a  speed  gear  of  the  Doris  type.  To  the  upper 
shaft  are  fastened  three  gears  corresponding  to  the  three  pinions, 


FIG.  228. — Automobile  change-speed  gear. 

and  in  addition  an  internal  gear  outside  the  casing  and  of  compara- 
tively large  diameter.  A  pinion  is  mounted  upon  the  lower  shaft, 
at  the  end  thereof,  adapted  to  mesh  with  the  internal  gear,  but  is 
normally  held  out  of  mesh  by  means  of  a  coiled  spring  at  the  end  of 
the  shaft.  The  pinion  is  mounted  upon  a  long  sleeve  surrounding 
the  shaft  and  extending  through  the  bearing  into  the  casing.  The 
set  of  three  shifting  pinions  is  shown  in  the  position  of  slow  forward 
speed.  By  moving  them  to  the  left  the  second  and  third  speeds  are 
engaged  in  succession,  and  after  the  gears  of  the  third  speed  are  out 
of  mesh,  if  the  motion  is  still  continued,  the  sliding  pinions  will  abut 


246 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


against  the  sleeve  of  the  reverse  pinion,  and  shift  the  pinion  into 
mesh  with  the  internal  gear  against  the  pressure  of  the  spring. 


FIG.  229. — Automobile  change-speed  gear. 

Fig.  229  illustrates  a  speed  gear  of  the  Petteler  type — French— 
in  which  A  is  the  driving  shaft  with  fixed  gears;  B,  collar  on  spear- 


FIG.  230. — Winton  automobile  change-gear. 

Reference  Numbers:  19,  gear-case;  81.  high-speed  shifting-yoke;  32,  high-speed  cone;  34, 
high-speed  gear;  35,  high-speed  clutch-pin;  36  high-speed  gear;  38,  low  and  reverse-speed 
shifting-yoke;  39,  low-speed  gear;  40,  low-speed  pinion;  41,  low  and  reverse-speed  clutch-ball ; 
42,  counter-shaft  gear;  44,  reverse-speed  pinion;  45r  reverse-speed  gear;  46,  reverse-speed 
idler-gear;  not  shown.  116,  high-speed  clutch-ball;  117-  high-speed  clutch-dog;  118,  high- 
speed gear  dog-plate;  119,  high-speed  friction-disk;  120.  emergency-brake  drum;  121,  low- 
speed  clutch-dog;  122.  low-speed  clutch-plate;  123.  low-speed  cone;  A,  reverse-gear  combina- 
tion with  idler;  B»  low-speed  gear  combination;  C,  high-speed  gear  combination. 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF   THE  EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR      247 


FIG.  231— Motor-starter. 


shaped  blade-rod  for  operating  the  plungers  for  clutching  the  for- 
ward-motion gears;  C,  collar  to  a  sliding  conical  sleeve  that  oper- 
ates the  plungers  for  the  back  motion  through  an  idler  gear,  not 
shown. 

In  Fig.  230  is  illustrated  the  change  gear  of  the  Winton  auto- 
mobile-motor, of  which  the  sub-references  indicate  the  parts  which 
are  operated  by  two  shift- 
ing yokes  controlling  the 
speeds  and  reverse. 

A  novel  starting  device 
for  small  motors  on  runa- 
bouts or  other  light  car- 
riages, an  English  design, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  231.  A 
starting  wheel  B,  with  ob- 
lique saw-teeth,  is  fixed  on 
the  motor-shaft  A.  A  sprocket  chain  C  C'  is  wound  on  a  drum 
containing  a  coiled  spring  D,  so  arranged  as  to  rewind  the  chain 
with  a  stop  J,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  hang  free  from  the  ratchet- 
wheel  when  the  finger-loop  at  E  is  dropped  to  the  eye  in  the 
vehicle  floor.  G  is  the  sheave;  K  the  slotted  guide-plate;  F  the 
lanyard.  To  start,  pull  on  E  to  catch  the  chain  in  the  teeth  of 
the  wheel  and  with  a  jerk  set  the  wheel  revolving,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, repeat. 

AN   AUTOMATIC    FOOT-TREADLE 

In  Fig.  232  is  shown  a  device  for  controlling  the  motor  of  an  auto- 
mobile, which  is  made  by  the  Turner  Brass  Works,  Chicago,  111. 

The  great  advantage  claimed  for  this  device  is  that  it  gives  com- 
plete control  of  the  two  most  vital  parts  of  an  automobile,  viz., 
the  spark  and  throttle  on  carbureter,  by  having  automatic  means  of 
setting  and  holding  either  in  any  position,  operating  either  one  sep- 
arately, or  both  simultaneously,  as  desired,  with  one  foot. 

This  leaves  both  hands  free  for  operating  the  wheel  or  clutch- 
lever  and  one  foot  for  whatsoever  duty  it  may  be  desired,  such  as 
for  operating  the  brake. 

In  starting  the  motor,  the  carbureter  throttle  can  be  thrown  wide 
open  and  held  there  by  the  ratchet,  while  the  spark  can  be  set  to 


248 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


just  the  point  where  practice  and  best  judgment  dictates  it  should 
be  set  to  give  the  best  chance  of  starting.    It  also  gives  one  the 

advantage  of  being  able  to  alter 
the  speed  while  vehicle  is  standing 
and  slow  the  motor  down  to  any 
speed  desired,  while  for  checking 
the  speed  of  a  car  no  better  or 
more  efficient  means  could  be 
devised  than  to  throttle  carbureter 
and  retard  the  spark  simulta- 
neously, as  can  be  done  with  this 
attachment  by  the  simple  opera- 
tion of  tilting  the  two  pedals 
together.  In  starting  the  vehicle 
the  carbureter  can  be  first  thrown 
on  full  and  the  spark  advanced 
gradually  to  suit  speed  of  motor. 
This  device  is  easily  applied,  being  self-contained.  The  lugs  on 
treadle  are  sufficiently  large  to  allow  for  pinning  on  shoes  or  ex- 
tension-shafts, which  can  be  carried  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
automobile  when  occasion  demands. 

In  Fig.  233  is  illustrated  the  safety  device  of  the  E.  R.  Thomas 


FIG.   232. — Automobile  motor-con- 
troller. 


FIG.  233. — Safety  automobile  device. 


TYPES  AND   DETAILS  OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE  MOTOR      249 

Motor  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  used  for  preventing  automobiles 
from  backing  on  uphill  grades,  should  the  motor  stop  from  any 
cause.  By  its  use  the  car  cannot  back  on  the  steepest  hill. 

Every  Thomas  automobile  is  equipped  with  the  Thomas  safety 
device,  a  peculiar  ratchet  cast  integral  with  the  brake  and  sprocket- 
drum  on  the  rear  hubs,  the  co-acting  pawl  being  pivoted  to  the 
brake-spider.  It  is  operated  by  a  hand  lever  on  the  right  side  of  the 
dashboard  to  which  the  pawl  is  connected  by  a  wire  cable.  This 
safety  device  positively  prevents  the  car  from  backing  downhill 
should  the  engine  stop.  It  can  be  used  in  place  of  the  brake  when 
stopping  on  a  hill.  This  makes  the  Thomas  car  particularly  adapted 
for  use  in  hilly  sections,  and  renders  accidents  from  backing  an  im- 
possibility. It  is  one  of  their  distinctive  and  exclusive  features. 

The  devices  for  controlling  the  motion  of  vehicle-motors  and 
the  speed  of  automobiles  are  most  numerous,  and  to  which  many 
pages  might  be  devoted,  perhaps  without  furthering  the  object  of 
this  work,  which  is  naturally  confined  to  the  principles  and  con- 
struction of  the  explosive  motor  alone;  yet  there  are  so  many 
points  in  the  application  and  use  of  this  novel  power,  so  many  ad- 
juncts required  in  its  successful  adaptation  for  all  purposes,  that 
their  illustration  seems  necessary  in  order  to  extend  such  details  for 
the  satisfaction  of  the  inquiring  reader. 

The  application  of  this  new  power  to,  and  its  development  of 
high  speed  in  automobiles,  racing  boats,  and  for  direct-connected 
electric-generating  power,  depending,  as  it  does,  upon  the  highest 
designing  and  constructive  art,  has  made  a  marvellous  progress 
during  the  past  few  years. 

Although  we  have  endeavored  to  bring  out  in  this  work,  by 
illustration  and  description,  the  most  essential  features  of  the  ex- 
plosive motor  and  its  adjuncts,  there  is  still  a  large  field  open 
for  development  of  economy  in  design  and  construction,  while  the 
field  of  invention  is  not  yet  near  exhaustion. 

Its  many  points  of  advantage  in  power  for  vehicle  and  launch- 
service  will  no  doubt  make  it  the  leading  type  in  the  future  for 
this  particular  service. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER 

THE  methods  of  measuring  power  are  of  but  two  general  forms 
or  principles,  although  the  individual  machines  or  instruments 
for  accomplishing  the  measurement  are  of  many  kinds  and  of  a 
variety  of  construction. 

The  one  form  is  especially  adapted  for  the  measurement  of  the 
available  power  of  prime  movers  under  the  various  conditions  of 
the  application  of  their  elementary  power  constituents,  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  their  whole  output  of  power  at  the  point  of  delivery 
and  there  record  the  value  of  its  force  and  velocity.  Its  represen- 
tative is  the  brake-dynamometer,  or  Prony's  brake,  in  the  various 
details  of  construction  that  it  has  assumed  as  designed  and  applied 
to  meet  the  views  or  fancies  of  mechanical  engineers. 

The  second  form  is  a  marked  departure  from  the  structural  form 
of  the  first,  and  with  the  principle  in  view  of  placing  as  little  ob- 
struction as  possible  to  the  transmission  of  power  from  the  prime 
mover  to  the  receiver  of  power,  to  measure  the  actual  net  or  differ- 
ential tension  of  a  belt  or  gear,  and  with  its  velocity  indicate  the 
exact  amount  of  power  delivered  to  a  line  of  shafting  or  a  machine. 
These  are  called  transmitting  dynamometers  in  distinction  from  the 
absorption  dynamometers  of  the  Prony  type.  They  are  of  two 
kinds,  one  with  a  dial  and  index-pointer,  by  which  the  hand  on  the 
dial  must  be  constantly  watched  and  recorded  for  a  length  of  time 
and  a  mean  pressure  obtained  from  the  varying  record.  The  other 
carries  a  self-marking  register  moved  by  clockwork,  by  which  the 
actual  pressure  is  a  constant  record  for  any  desired  time,  or  a  full 
clay's  work,  the  only  personal  observation  required  being  the  speed 
of  the  pulley  or  belt  or  its  average  throughout  the  time  or  day. 

In  Fig.  234  we  illustrate  the  first  form,  a  simple  absorption 
dynamometer  or  Prony's  brake,  named  after  its  inventor,  in  which 
A  is  the  radius  of  the  pulley-drum  or  shaft  to  which  resistance  may 
250 


THE  MEASUREMENT  OF   POWER 


251 


be  applied;  B,  the  length  of  the  lever  from  the  centre  of  the  shaft 
to  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  spring  scale  or  other  means  of 
measuring  the  tension  of  the  lever;  C,  a  spring  scale,  which  is  pref- 


erable for  light  work  within  its  range;  and  N  N,  lever-nuts  for  quick 
control  of  the  pressure. 

In  Fig.  235  is  presented  a  simple  and  inexpensive  arrangement 


252  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

of  a  power-absorbing  brake  for  a  large  driving  pulley  or  finished 
fly-wheel,  in  which  a  belt  is  lined  with  blocks  of  wood  spaced  and 
fastened  to  the  belt  with  screws  or  nails,  a  few  of  the  blocks  pro- 
jecting over  the  edge  with  shoulders  to  prevent  the  belt  from  run- 
ning off  the  pulley. 

Spring  scales  may  be  purchased  of  the  straight  and  dial  pattern 
up  to  one  or  two  hundred  pounds  capacity  at  reasonable  figures,  and 
are  a  source  of  satisfaction  in  showing  the  amount  of  vibration  due 
to  irregular  pulsations  of  the  motive  element  and  crank  motion. 
Where  the  measurement  of  power  beyond  the  range  of  a  spring 
balance  is  required,  the  use  of  a  platform  scale  or  any  other  weighing 
device  may  be  made  available.  With  a  platform  scale  the  light 
wooden  strut  E  (Fig.  235)  may  be  adjusted  to  any  length  of  lever, 
vertically  reaching  from  the  platform  to  the  horizon  line  B,  from 
the  centre  of  the  shaft;  lanyards  or  any  convenient  means  being 
used  to  keep  the  end  of  the  lever  from  swaying. 

Water  from  a  squirt-can  is  the  best  lubricant  for  this  class  of 
dynamometers,  as  it  can  be  easily  thrown  upon  the  face  of  the 
pulley  at  the  interstices  of  the  blocks  and  lagging,  and  by  its  quick 
evaporation  carries  off  the  heat  generated  by  friction.  Soapy  water 
has  been  used  to  good  effect  in  preventing  irregular  pressure  or 
stickiness  of  the  friction  surfaces. 

It  matters  not  in  what  direction  the  brake-lever  is  placed  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  observation,  so  long  as  the  pull  of  the  scale 
is  made  at  right  angles  to  the  radial  line  from  the  shaft  centre.  Its 
weight,  as  indicated  on  the  scale,  with  the  friction-blocks  or  strap 
loosened  in  any  position  that  it  may  be  set,  should  be  noted  and  a 
record  made  of  the  amount,  which  must  be  deducted  from  the  total 
observed  weight  of  the  trial.  If  it  is  necessary  to  reverse  the  posi- 
tion of  the  lever  or  the  relative  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  pulley 
(as  shown  in  Figs.  234  and  235),  then  the  weight  of  the  lever  must  be 
added  to  the  weight  shown  by  the  scale  under  trial.  When  the 
platform  scale  is  used  the  weight  of  the  lever  must  necessarily  be 
downward  and  should  be  deducted  from  the  weight  shown  by  the 
scale  under  trial.  Making  D  equal  the  diameter  of  the  face  of 
the  pulley,  fly-wheel,  or  shaft  upon  which  friction  is  applied,  in  feet 
or  decimals  of  a  foot,  B  the  length  of  the  lever  from  the  centre  of 
the  shaft  to  the  point  of  the  scale  suspension,  A  the  radius  of  the 


THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  POWER 


253 


pulley  fly-wheel,  or  shaft,  also  in  feet  or  decimals  of  a  foot,  and  R  the 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  shaft  per  minute :  the  weight  used  in 
the  formula  must  be  the  net  weight  of  the  power  stress,  or  the  gross 
observed  weight  less  the  weight  of  the  lever.  Then 

T> 

Dx3.1416xRX-rX  weight 

—  =  horse-power, 


or 


33,000 
Bx  6.2832  XRXW 
33,000 


=  horse-power. 


H 


-rX  weight  =  the  stress  or  pull  at  the  face  of  the  pulley,  and  Dx 
A 

3.1416 XR  =  the  velocity  of 
the  face  of  the  pulley  or  of 
the  belt  that  it  is  to  carry. 
In  Fig.  23.6  is  represented 
a  simple  and  easily  arranged 
differential  strap-brake  or 
dynamometer  for  small  mo- 
tors of  less  than  two  horse- 


FIG.  236. — Differential  strap-brake. 


FIG.  237. — Differential  rope-brake. 


power.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  belting  held  in  place  on  the  pul- 
ley by  clips  or  only  strings  fastened  parallel  with  the  shaft  to 
keep  the  belt  from  slipping  off;  two  spring  scales,  one  of  which  is 


254  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

anchored  and  the  other  attached  to  a  hand-lever  to  regulate  the 
compression  of  the  belt  upon  the  surface  of  the  pulley,  when  the 
differential  weight  B  —  C  on  the  scales  may  be  noted  simultaneously 
with  the  revolutions  of  the  pulley.  The  simple  formula 

D  X  3. 1416  XR  X  differential  weight 

33,000  =  horse-power. 

Fig.  237  illustrates  a  rope-absorption  dynamometer  or  brake 
with  a  complete  wrap  on  the  surface  of  the  pulley,  very  suitable 
for  grooved  pulleys  or  fly-wheels  used  for  rope- transmission.  In 
this  form  the  friction  tension  may  be  regulated  with  a  lever  as  at  A. 
The  weight  W  in  the  formula  is  the  differential  of  the  opposite 
tensions  of  the  two  scales,  or  B-C  =  W  (Fig.  237),  and  the  formula 

DX3.1416XRXW 
will  then  be:  — 00  AAn =  horse-power,  as  in  the  notation 

oo,UUU 

(Fig.  236). 

Thus  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  difference  of  the  pull  in 
a  rope  or  belt  on  the  two  sides  of  a  pulley,  multiplied  by  the  velo- 
city of  the  rim  in  feet  per  minute,  and  the  product  divided  by 
33,000,  gives  the  horse-power  either  absorbed  or  transmitted  by 
the  rope. 

THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    SPEED 

The  revolutions  of  a  motor  may  be  readily  obtained  by  an 
ordinary  hand-counter,  with  watch  in  hand  to  mark  the  time;  but 
for  accurate  work  and  to  show  the  variations  in  the  fly-wheel  speed 
by  the  intervals  of  revolution  between  impulses,  and  especially  the 
effect  of  mischarges  or  impulses  due  to  governing  the  speed,  there  is 
no  more  accurate  method  than  by  the  use  of  the  centrifugal  counter 
or  tachometer. 

These  instruments  are  designed  to  show  at  a  glance  a  continuous 
indication  of  the  actual  speed  and  its  variation  within  2  per 
cent,  by  careful  handling  of  the  instrument.  The  tachometer  (Fig. 
238),  with  a  single-dial  scale  three  inches  in  diameter,  reads  from 
100  to  1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  and  by  changing  the  gear  for 
the  range  of  gas-engine  indication  the  actual  revolutions  will  be 
one-half  the  indicated  revolutions,  which  divided  by  2  will  repre- 
sent the  actual  speed.  In  this  manner  a  very  delicate  reading  of 


THE  MEASUREMENT  OF   POWER 


255 


the  variation  in  speed  may  be  obtained.  For  testing  the  variation 
of  speed  in  electric-lighting  plants  operated  by  gas,  gasoline,  or  oil- 
engines, there  is  no  method  so  satisfactory  as  by  the  use  of  the 
tachometer. 


/\ 


FIG.  238.— The  tachometer. 


FIG.  239. — The  triple-indexed 
tachometer. 


The  triple-indexed  tachometer  (Fig.  239)  is  a  most  convenient 
instrument  for  quickly  testing  and  comparing  speed  of  great  differ- 


256 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


ences,  as  the  motor  and  the  generator,  by  simply  changing  the 
driving  point  from  one  to  another  gear  stem.  These  tachometers 
are  made  by  Schaeffer  and  Budenberg,  New  York,  and  may  be  or- 
dered for  any  range  of  speed,  from  50  to  500  for  gas-engines  and 
from  500  to  2,000  for  generators,  in  the  same  instrument  or  separate 
as  desired. 

THE    INDICATOR    AND    ITS   WORK 

We  have  selected  among  the  many  good  indicators  in  the  market 
the  one  most  suitable  for  indicating  the  work  of  the  explosive  en- 


FIG.  240. — The  Thompson  indicator. 

gine.  The  Thompson  indicator  as  made  by  Schaeffer  and  Buden- 
berg, New  York,  and  illustrated  in  Figs.  240  and  241,  is  a  light  and 
sensitive  instrument  with  absolute  rectilinear  motion  of  the  pencil, 


THE  MEASUREMENT  OF   POWER 


257 


with  its  cylinder  and  piston  made  of  a  specially  hard  alloy  which 
prevents  the  possibility  of  surface  abrasion  and  insures  a  uniform 
frictionless  motion  of  the  piston.  It  is  provided  with  an  extra  and 
smaller-sized  cylinder  and  piston,  suitable  with  a  light  spring  for 


FIG.  241. — Section  of  indicator. 

testing  the  suction  and  exhaust  curves  of  explosive  motors,  so  use- 
ful in  showing  the  condition  and  proportion  of  valve  ports. 

The  large  piston  of  the  standard  size  is  0.798  inch  in  diameter 
and  equal  to  J  square-inch  area.  The  small  piston  (Fig.  242)  is 
0.590  inch  in  diameter  and  equal  to  0.274  square-inch  area,  so  that 
a  50  or  60  spring  may  be  used  in  indicating  explosive  engines  with 
the  small  piston,  which  will  give  cards  within  the  range  of  the 


258 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


paper  for  low-explosive  pressure  but  full  enough  to  show  the  vari- 
ations in  all  the  lines.  With  the  100  spring  and  J-inch  area  of  pis- 
ton 250  pounds  pressure  is  about  the  limit  of  the  card,  but  with 
this  size  piston  a  120  or  160  spring  is  more  generally  used. 

The  pulley  V  is  carried  by  the  swivel  W,  and  works  freely  in 
the  post  X;  it  can  be  locked  in  any  position  by  the  small  set 
screw.  The  swivel-plate  Y  can  be  swung  in  any  direction  in  its 
plane  and  held  firmly  by  the  thumb-screw  Z.  Thus  with  the 


FIG.  242.— Small 
piston.- 


FIG.  243. — The  reducing  pulley. 


combination  the  cord  can  be  directed  in  all  possible  directions. 
The  link  A  is  made  as  short  as  possible,  with  long  double  bear- 
ings at  both  ends  to  give  a  firm  and  steady  support  to  the  lever 
B,  making  it  less  liable  to  cause  irregularities  in  the  diagram 
when  indicating  high-speed  motors. 

The  paper  drum  is  made  with  a  closed  top  to  preserve  its 
accurate  cylindrical  form,  and  the  top,  having  a  journal-bear- 
ing at  U  in  the  centre,  compels  a  true  concentric  movement  to 
its  surface. 

The  spring  E,  and  the  spring-case  F,  are  secured  to  the  rod 


THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  POWER  259 

G  by  screwing  the  case  F  to  a  shoulder  on  G  by  means  of  a  thumb- 
screw H. 

To  adjust  the  tension  of  the  drum-spring,  the  drum  can  be 
easily  removed,  and  by  holding  on  to  the  spring-case  E,  and  loosen- 
ing screw  H,  the  tension  can  readily  be  varied  and  adapted  to  any 
speed,  to  follow  precisely  the  motion  of  the  engine-piston. 

The  bars  of  the  nut  I  are  made  hollow,  so  as  to  insert  a  small 
short  rod,  K,  which  is  a  great  convenience  in  unscrewing  the  indi- 
cator when  hot. 

The  reducing  pulley  (Fig.  243)  is  a  most  important  adjunct 
of  the  indicator.  The  revfclving  parts  should  be  as  light  as  possible 
and  are  now  made  of  aluminum  for  high-speed  motors,  with  pulleys 
proportioned  for  short-stroke  motors.  In  the  use  of  indicators 
for  high-compression  motors  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  stop-tube  in- 
serted in  the  cap-piece  that  holds  the  spring  and  extending  down 
and  inside  the  spring  so  as  to  stop  the  motion  of  the  piston  at  the 
limit  of  the  pencil  motion  below  the  top  of  the  card.  This  will  pre- 
vent undue  stress  on  the  spring  and  extreme  throw  of  the  pencil 
when,  by  misfires,  an  unusual  charge  is  fired.  With  the  smaller 
piston  and  the  usual  100  or  120  spring  any  possible  explosive  pres- 
sure may  be  properly  recorded. 

The  proximity  of  the  indicator  to  the  combustion  chamber 
is  of  importance  in  making  a  true  record  of  the  explosive  action 
of  the  combustible  gases  on  the  card.  The  time  of  transmission  of 
the  wave  of  compression  and  expansion  through  a  tube  of  one,  two, 
or  three  feet  in  length  is  quite  noticeable  in  the  distortion  of  the  dia- 
gram. It  shows  a  delay  in  compression  and  carries  th'e  expansion 
line  over  a  curve  at  the  apex  lower  than  the  maximum  pressure, 
and  by  the  delay  raises  the  expansion  curve  higher  than  the  actual 
expansion  curve  of  the  cylinder.  An  indicator  for  true  effect  should 
have  a  straightway  cock  screwed  into  the  cylinder. 


VIBRATION  OF  BUILDINGS  AND  FLOORS  BY  THE  RUNNING    OF 
EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS 

Since  this  class  of  engines  has  so  largely  superseded  small 
steam-power,  and  the  vast  extension  of  their  use  in  the  upper  part 
of  buildings  due  to  their  economy  for  all  small  powers,  the  trouble 


260  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

arising  from  the  vibration  of  buildings  and  floors  by  their  running 
has  largely  increased. 

The  necessity  for  placing  motive  power  near  its  point  of  appli- 
cation has  resulted  in  locating  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil-engines  in  light 
and  fragile  buildings  and  on  floors  not  capable  of  resisting  the  slight- 
est synchronal  motion. 

This  subject  has  been  often  brought  to  our  notice  since  the 
advent  of  the  gas-engine  in  the  lead  for  small  powers.  It  is  a  dif- 
ficult question  to  advise  remedies  for  it,  from  the  variety  of  ways  in 
which  the  effect  is  produced.  Synchronism  between  the  time 
vibration  of  a  floor  and  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  engine  is 
always  a  matter  of  experiment,  and  can  only  be  ascertained  by  a 
trial  in  varying  the  engine  speed  by  uniform  stages  until  the  vibra- 
tion has  become  a  minimum.  Then  if  the  engine  speed  of  least 
vibration  is  an  inconvenient  one  for  engine  economy,  or  for  the 
speed  layout  of  the  machinery  plant,  a  change  may  be  made  in  the 
time  vibration  of  the  floor  by  loading  or  bracing.  The  placing  of 
a  large  stone  or  iron  slab  under  a  motor  will  often  modify  the  in- 
tensity of  the  vibration  by  so  changing  the  synchronism  of  the  floor 
and  engine  as  to  enable  the  proper  speed  to  be  made  with  the  least 
vibration. 

A  vertical  post  under  the  engine  is  of  little  use  unless  it  ex- 
tends to  a  solid  foundation  on  the  ground;  nor  should  a  vertical 
post  be  placed  between  the  engine-floor  and  floor-beams  above, 
as  it  only  communicates  the  vibrations  to  any  floor  in  unison  with 
the  vibrations  of  the  engine-floor. 

A  system  of  diagonal  posts  extending  from  near  the  centre 
of  a  vibrating  floor  to  a  point  near  the  walls  or  supporting  columns 
of  the  floors  above  or  below,  or  a  pair  of  iron  suspenders  placed 
diagonally  from  the  overhead  beams  near  their  wall  bearings  to  a 
point  near  the  location  of  an  engine  and  Strongly  bolted  to  the  floor- 
beams,  will  greatly  modify  the  vibration  and  in  many  cases  abate 
a  nuisance. 

In  the  installation  of  reciprocating  machinery  on  the  upper 
floors  of  a  building  in  which  the  reciprocating  parts  of  the  motor, 
as  a  horizontal  engine,  are  in  the  same  direction  as  the  reciprocating 
parts  of  the  machines  (as  in  printing  press-rooms)  the  trouble  from 
the  horizontal  vibration  has  been  often  found  a  serious  one.  It 


VIBRATION   OF  BUILDINGS  261 

may  be  somewhat  modified  by  making  the  number  of  the  strokes  of 
the  engine  an  odd  number  of  the  strokes  of  the  reciprocating  parts 
of  the  machine. 

It  is  well  known  to  engine-builders  that  explosive  motors,  like 
high-speed  steam-engines,  cannot  be  absolutely  balanced,  but  their 
heavy  fly-wheels  and  bases  go  far  toward  it  by  absorption,  and  the 
best  that  can  be  done  with  the  balance  is  to  make  as  perfect  a  com- 
promise of  the  values  of  the  longitudinal  and  lateral  forces  as  pos- 
sible by  inequality  in  the  fly-wheel  rims. 

The  jar  caused  by  excessive  explosions  after  misfires  and  muf- 
fler-pot explosions  is  of  the  unusual  kind  that  cannot  be  easily 
provided  with  a  remedy  where  the  transmitted  power  is  not  uni- 
form, for  where  it  is  uniform  there  is  ample  regulation  from  the 
governor  to  make  the  charges  regular,  and  if  the  igniter  is  well  ad- 
justed there  should  be  no  cause  for  "  kicking,"  as  our  European 
cousins  call  it.  A  good  practice  in  setting  motors  is  to  locate  them 
near  a  beam-bearing  wall  or  column  that  extends  to  the  foundation 
of  the  building.  Many  motors  so  placed  are  found  to  be  free  from 
the  nuisance  of  tremor. 

The  duplication  of  cylinders  and  the  definite  counter-balancing 
now  in  use  has,  in  a  great  measure,  modified  these  troubles  and  two 
and  three-cylinder  motors  are  in  great  favor  where  only  unstable 
foundations  are  available. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

ON    THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS 

THE  drift  of  constructive  practice  in  the  United  States  seems 
generally  to  be  in  the  line  of  simplicity  and  least  number  of  parts, 
in  order  to  conform  to  the  needs  of  the  people  that  have  the  care  of 
such  motive  power.  The  explosive  motor  now  appeals  to  no  ex- 
perience as  an  engineer  for  its  care  and  running;  yet  it  does  seem 
to  require  some  common  sense  as  to  cleanliness  and  the  propriety 
of  things  that  may  assume  a  menacing  or  dangerous  habit  by 
neglect  of  some  of  the  few  points  of  attention  required  in  persons 
having  the  charge  of  this  rising  prime  mover.  The  ability  to  dis- 
cover leakage  of  gas  or  oil-vapors  or  the  products  of  combustion  in 
the  pipe  connections,  through  valves,  or  by  a  defective  or  worn 
piston;  the  thumping  in  journal-boxes,  looseness  of  pins,  and  piston 
thump  is  easily  acquired  when  a  person  assumes  the  care  of  an  en- 
gine. The  regulation  of  the  explosive  mixtures  is  fully  explained 
in  the  instruction  pamphlets  and  display  sheets  of  the  builders,  and 
from  the  completeness  of  instructions  furnished  there  seems  nothing 
to  fear  in  the  first  start  of  an  explosive  motor  by  any  person  of  ordi- 
nary intelligence. 

Cleanliness  being  of  the  first  order,  due  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  cleaning  of  the  cylinder,  valves,  and  exhaust-pipe 
at  stated  intervals;  in  some  motors  at  least  once  a  month,  in  other 
motors  several  months  may  elapse  without  internal  cleaning  being 
necessary,  apparently  without  detriment.-  But  we  apprehend  that 
the  quality  of  the  fuel  has  much  to  do  with  the  fouling  of  the  com- 
bustion chamber  and  exhaust-pipe,  and  therefore  the  quality  of  the 
fuel  should  be  suggestive  of  the  times  indicated  for  internal  clean- 
ing. Excessive  use  of  fuel  or  a  too  rich  mixture  is  the  cause  of 
many  mysterious  troubles,  especially  in  motors  using  the  heavier 
oils,  as  with  kerosene,  distillate,  and  crude  petroleum  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  carbon,  which  is  not  burned  and  becomes  pre- 
262 


ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS          263 

cipitated  on  the  interior  walls  of  the  motor  and  the  exhaust-pipe. 
The  outside  surfaces  should  be  wiped  off  before  starting  or  at  the 
close  of  work  every  day,  especially  where  the  location  is  in  a  room 
with  working  people,  as  the  odor  of^  the  lubricating  oil  is  not  agree- 
able when  the  oil  is  spread  in  excess  over  an  engine. 

In  workshops  or  rooms  where  dust  prevails  it  is  most  desirable 
to  enclose  the  motor  in  a  small  room  by  itself,  well  ventilated  from 
without,  for  motor  cylinders  are  mostly  open  and  gather  dust  on 
their  oily  surfaces,  and  dust  in  the  in-going  air  of  combustion  leaves 
grit  and  ashes  in  the  cylinder.  The  oil  for  lubricating  the  cylinder 
should  be  the  best  "cylinder-oil"  of  the  trade,  and  is  sold  by 
many  dealers  as  "gas-engine  cylinder-oil."  It  is  not  so  expensive 
as  to  preclude  its  use  for  all  the  moving  parts  of  an  explosive  motor, 
although  a  poorer  quality  is  in  general  use. 

Automatic  oil-feeders  are  almost  universally  furnished  with 
these  engines,  so  that  there  should  be  very  little  waste  of  oil.  In 
cleaning  the  internal  parts  from  carbon  and  oil  crust,  no  sharp 
scrapers  should  be  used  on  any  rubbing  parts  or  the  bearing  of 
valves.  If  unable  to  remove  the  crust  with  a  cloth  and  kerosene 
oil,  a  hard-wood  stick  and  oil  will  generally  remove  the  incrustation 
down  to  the  metal,  while  the  valves,  if  not  cut,  only  need  rubbing 
on  their  seats  with  finely  pulverized  pumice  or  other  polishing  pow- 
der. Emery  is  not  recommended,  as  valves  often  get  too  much 
grinding  to  their  detriment  by  the  use  of  this  material. 

In  starting  a  motor  it  should  always  be  turned  over  in  its  run- 
ning direction,  and  when  compression  makes  this  difficult  the  relief- 
valve  (most  motors  have  one)  or  the  exhaust  or  air-valve  may  be 
opened  to  clear  the  cylinder,  if  an  overcharge  of  gas  or  a  failure  has 
been  made  at  the  first  turn. 

In  most  cases  turning  the  fly-wheel  two  or  three  revolutions 
will  clear  and  charge  the  cylinder  under  the  usual  conditions  for 
starting.  With  most  of  the  large  motors  a  starting  device  is  pro- 
vided, which  is  described  in  the  special  exhibit  of  the  explosive 
motors  further  on. 

Some  of  the  troubles  to  be  met  are  severe  explosions  after  sev- 
eral misfires,  by  which  the  cylinder  may  become  overcharged  with 
the  combustible  mixture.  This  is  often  caused  by  irregular  work 
on  the  engine,  and  the  consequent  scavengering  of  the  cylinder  of 


264  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

the  products  of  previous  explosions,  replacing  with  pure  mixtures 
at  the  next  charge.  Again,  by  a  misfire  from  failure  in  the  igniter 
an  explosive  charge  is  intensified  at  the  next  ignition  or  exploded 
in  the  exhaust-pipe.  Other  interruptions  sometimes  occur,  such 
as  the  sticking  of  the  exhaust-valve  open  by  gumming  of  the  spindle 
or  a  weak  spring.  From  this  may  also  arise  some  of  the  back-firings 
in  the  muffler  and  exhaust-pipe.  All  of  these  explosions  taking 
place  at  irregular  times  may  be  attributed,  first,  to  irregular  work; 
second,  to  irregularity  in  the  operation  of  the  valve  gear  or  igniter, 
and  although  not  pleasant  to  the  ear  may  not  be  considered  dan- 
gerous, because  the  motors  and  all  their  parts  subject  to  explosion 
are  made  equal  in  working  strength  to  the  greatest  pressure  made 
by  such  explosions. 

With  the  compression  usual  in  motors,  40  to  60  pounds,  the 
greatest  force  from  misfire  or  back-fire  explosives  can  scarcely 
reach  300  pounds  per  square  inch  in  the  cylinders  and  150  pounds  in 
the  mufflers,  unless,  by  a  possible  contraction  of  the  exhaust-pipe 
by  carbon  deposit,  a  muffler-pot  may  have  possibilities  of  rupture. 
In  no  case  should  an  exhaust-pipe  be  turned  into  a  chimney.  With 
gas-engines  the  full  power  is  sometimes  not  realized  from  insufficient 
gas  supply.  The  gas  bag  is  a  good  indicator  of  this  condition, 
caused  by  a  too  small  gas-pipe  or  a  small  meter,  by  which  a  flabby 
appearance  of  the  gas  bag  shows  that  the  motor  is  drawing  more 
than  the  pipe  or  meter  can  supply  with  a  proper  working  pressure. 

The  muffler-pots  have  been  known  to  accumulate  water  in  cold 
weather,  by  condensation  of  the  water  vapor  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  gas  and  air,  to  such  an  extent 
as  sometimes  to  cause  fear  in  an  attendant  of  a  cracked  cylinder 
and  leakage  of  water  in  from  the  jacket  circulation. 

The  water  should  be  drawn  off  occasionally  from  the  muffler-pot 
by  a  cock.  Gas-motors  running  with  electric  igniters  sometimes 
do  not  start  at  first  trial  from  the  accumulation  of  air  in  the  gas- 
pipe.  Testing  by  a  gas-burner  or  a  second  trial  will  show  where 
the  difficulty  lies  and  its  remedy.  And,  finally,  much  caution  should 
be  observed  in  examining  the  interior  of  valve  chambers  and  the 
electric  exploders  by  taking  off  caps  or  plugs  and  using  a  light  near 
them  until  assured  that  fuel-inlets  are  closed  and  the  motor  has  been 
turned  over  several  times  to  clear  it  of  all  explosive  mixture.  The 


ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS         265 

consequences  of  explosion  from  peep-holes  are  obvious.  Even  when 
a  motor  has  been  idle  for  a  time  it  should  be  opened  with  the  above 
caution. 

The  adjustment  of  governors  requires  only  care  and  a  careful 
study  of  the  directions  for  operating  the  engines,  as  there  are  too 
many  variations  in  the  designs  and  methods  of  adjustment  for 
definite  instructions  under  this  head.  Much  care  is  required  in 
renewing  the  ignition-tubes,  especially  after  the  spare  tubes  fur- 
nished with  the  engine  have  been  all  used.  The  same  size  gas-pipe 
and  of  the  same  length  as  the  tubes  furnished  with  the  engine  should 
be  made  and  the  end  welded  up  or  capped,  so  that  they  may  con- 
tain the  same  volume  as  the  original  tubes.  This  caution  will  en- 
sure the  uniform  adjustment  of  the  time  of  ignition  by  change  of 
tubes;  otherwise  tinkering  with  the  position  of  the  Bunsen  burner 
will  not  enable  an  attendant  not  experienced  in  regulating  the  time 
of  ignition  to  regulate  it  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  The  regula- 
tion when  once  lost  can  be  properly  tested  only  by  an  indicator 
card. 

With  a  timing  valve  and  the  amount  of  lead  for  the  return  fire 
from  the  tube  being  known,  the  adjustment  of  the  timing- valve 
throw  can  be  made  from  the  position  of  the  dead  centre  of  the  crank 
at  the  end  of  the  forward  stroke.  The  timing  lead  is  the  time  that 
is  required  for  the  mixture  to  pass  the  valve  and  become  compressed 
in  the  igniting  tube  and  the  flame  to  return  to  the  combustion  cham- 
ber, as  measured  on  the  circumference  of  the  timing- valve  cam. 

Other  than  iron  tubes  are  used,  such  as  nickel-steel,  aluminum, 
bronze,  and  porcelain,  with  satisfactory  results.  The  porcelain 
tubes  are  made  short  and  require  a  special  fitting  to  adapt  them  to 
a  chimney,  or  the  chimney  should  be  of  special  design  (as  shown 
in  Fig.  68),  for  a  cross  impact  of  the  flame  of  the  Bunsen  burner. 

There  are  many  points  in  the  management  of  explosive  motors 
that  cannot  be  discussed  in  a  general  treatise,  arising  from  the 
varied  details  of  design,  in  which  special  reference  to  the  methods  of 
operating  the  valve  gears  of  igniters  and  governors  of  each  indi- 
vidual design  is  required.  The  special  instructions  furnished  by 
builders  are  ample  for  the  operation  of  their  motors,  and  if  carefully 
studied  lead  to  success  in  their  operation  by  any  person  of  ordinary 
intelligence  or  tact  in  handling  moving  machinery. 


266  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

Recent  experience  with  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil-vapor  engines 
has  brought  out  more  strongly  the  good  qualities  of  well-made  ex- 
plosive motors,  and  placed  them  far  ahead  as  a  reliable,  cheap,  and 
easily  managed  motive  power,  even  up  to  many  hundred  horse- 
power in  a  single  installation.  The  application  of  power  from  ex- 
plosive motors  for  the  generation  of  electricity  for  lighting  and  the 
transmission  of  power  is  no  longer  a  mooted  point  of  economy,  but 
has  become  a  fixed  principle  in  the  application  of  prime-moving 
power.  The  governing  devices  have  been  improved  and  applied 
in  the  line  of  uniform  motion  from  intermittent  impulse.  An  elec- 
tric gas-governing  device  for  controlling  the  flow  of  gas  to  correspond 
with  the  required  amperage  is  a  new  governing  application  that 
seems  to  break  the  last  objection  to  the  use  of  explosive  motors  for 
generating  the  electric  current  for  lighting  purposes. 

The  hot-tube  ignition  seems  to  hold  its  own  with  increased  life 
by  the  use  of  the  nickel  alloy  and  porcelain  tubes  as  described  in  the 
article  on  Hot  Tubes;  for,  while  the  electric  spark  has  its  advantages 
in  many  respects,  it  has  likewise  a  few  annoyances.  When  the  spark 
or  ignition  fails,  much  detention  may  follow  the  search  for  the  fault. 
The  hidden  contact-points,  fouling  of  sparking  insulation,  battery 
faults  and  connections  are  to  be  looked  after;  or  if  a  generator  is 
used,  the  chances  for  faults  in  a  constant-current  generator  are  no 
less,  but  also  become  a  cause  of  watchfulness. 

The  alternating  generator  is  now  coming  into  use  for  furnishing 
the  igniting  current  with  prospects  of  an  exactitude  so  long  desired, 
and  to  obviate  some  of  the  exigencies  of  the  controlling  mechanism 
in  the  continuous-current  system. 

As  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  full  firing  of  an  explosive  charge 
is  not  instantaneous  from  the  moment  of  igniton  in  the  hot  tube, 
and  that  the  greatest  mean  pressure  on  the  piston  results  from  per- 
fect ignition  of  the  whole  charge  at  the  moment  of  the  passage  of  the 
crank  over  the  centre,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  considerable  impor- 
tance that  the  hot  tube  and  Bunsen  burner  should  be  adjusted  so 
as  to  allow  the  compressed  fresh  charge  to  reach  the  part  of  the  hot 
tube  at  which  the  temperature  is  high  enough  to  cause  ignition  of 
the  charge  at  a  moment  just  before  the  crank  reaches  its  centre. 
The  variable  mixture  of  the  charge,  either  from  misfiring  of  a  pre- 
vious charge  or  from  the  action  of  an  over-sensitive  governor,  has 


ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS         267 

made  this  adjustment  heretofore  somewhat  difficult,  especially 
where  short-lived  tubes  were  in  use,  for  a  change  of  tube  usually 
varies  the  moment  of  ignition.  Since  the  advent  of  the  nickel  alloy 
and  porcelain  tubes  this  difficulty  has  been  greatly  overcome,  and 
the  ignition  tube  has  been  restored  to  favor  with  many  engine-build- 
ers who  had  adopted  the  electric  system  for  its  positive  timing. 
The  marine  and  automobile-engines,  however,  will  probably  hold  to 
electric  ignition  from  the  obvious  difficulty  in  managing  a  gasoline 
burner  for  such  service. 

Many  minor  improvements  of  the  past  year  have  conduced 
to  a  general  economy  in  running  expense  and  to  ease  of  manage- 
ment, among  which  may  be  noted  a  device  on  the  White  and  Middle- 
ton  and  other  engines,  by  the  turning  of  which  the  time  of  sparking 
is  retarded  at  starting,  and  the  engine  prevented  from  the  possibility 
of  starting  backward  by  explosion  before  the  crank  reaches  the 
centre. 

In  this  device  the  sparking  push-blade  has  a  double  trip  swiveled 
on  the  push-rod,  the  turning  over  of  which  changes  the  time  of  ig- 
nition. 

The  use  of  a  generator  armature  revolving  within  the  sphere 
of  a  permanent  magnet,  and  operated  from  a  contact  on  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  motor  to  a  pinion  on  the  armature,  is  in  use  on  a  large 
number  of  motors  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  marine  and  automobile 
types.  It  is  growing  in  favor,  and  appears  from  inspection  to  be  a 
reliable  and  satisfactory  device. 

In  trials  of  gasoline-engines  with  gas-engines  of  the  same  size 
and  construction,  it  has  been  found  that  the  indicated  horse-power 
from  gasoline  is  from  12  to  20  per  cent,  higher  than  from  illu- 
minating gas,  when  running  at  full  power.  This  does  not  cor- 
respond with  the  assigned  number  of  heat  units  per  cubic  foot  of 
gasoline-vapor  and  illuminating  gas;  for  gasoline-vapor  has  been 
credited  with  almost  the  same  value  in  heat  units  with  16-candle- 
power  illuminating  gas.  The  excessive  power  of  gasoline- vapor 
is  probably  due  to  modern  methods  in  the  manufacture  of  illu- 
minating gas,  by  which  a  large  percentage  of  non-combustible 
element  is  produced  in  the  form  of  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen. 

These  elements  of  non-combustion  exist  to  a  very  large  extent 
in  producer  and  water-gas,  which  is  well  known  to  require  a 


268  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

much  larger  engine  for  equal  power  with  a  high  illuminating-gas  or 
gasoline-engine.  There  is  a  tendency  toward  increase  of  com- 
pression to  near  its  greatest  theoretical  economy,  and  engines  are 
now  in  use  with  compression  of  90  or  more  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  with  a  clearance  of  25  per  cent.,  or  less,  of  the  space  swept  by  the 
piston,  with  claims  of  from  14  to  12  cubic  feet  of  illuminating  gas 
per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour. 


POINTERS  ON   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS 

The  explosive  motor  now  appeals  to  no  experience  and  respon- 
sibility of  a  professional  engineer  for  its  care  and  running,  yet  it 
does  require  much  common-sense  as  to  cleanliness  and  the  propriety 
of  things  that  may  assume  a  menacing  or  dangerous  habit  by  neg- 
lect of  some  of  the  few  points  of  attention  absolutely  essential. 

The  ability  to  discover  and  locate  leakage  of  gas  or  oil- vapors,  or 
the  products  of  combustion  in  the  pipe  connections,  through  valves 
or  by  a  defective  or  worn  piston;  the  thumping  in  journals,  loose- 
ness of  pins,  and  piston  thump,  is  easily  acquired  when  a  person  as- 
sumes the  care  of  an  explosive  motor.  The  regulation  of  the  explo- 
sive mixtures  is  so  fully  explained  in  the  instructions  now  sent  out 
with  the  motors  that  there  seems  nothing  to  fear  in  their  first  start- 
ing by  any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence. 

In  the  operation  of  these  motors,  cleanliness  is  of  the  first  order, 
and  due  attention  should  be  given  to  the  cleaning  of  the  cylinder, 
valves,  and  exhaust-pipe  at  stated  intervals,  according  to  the  kind 
of  fuel  used.  The  highly  carbonaceous  gases  and  vapors  require 
more  attention  in  internal  cleaning  than  those  containing  an  excess 
of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  constituent. 

In  using  highly  carbonaceous  gases  and  vapors,  cylinders,  valves, 
and  exhaust-pipes  need  cleaning  at  least  once  a  month,  while  with 
the  cleaner  fuels,  several  months  may  elapse  without  cleaning. 

The  outer  surfaces,  boxes,  and  parts  bespattered  with  oil  should 
be  kept  clean,  as  well  as  the  floor,  which  should  have  a  zinc  lining 
around  the  motor.  Wiping  up  twice  a  day  is  none  too  much  for 
cleanliness  and  the  welfare  of  people  working  in  the  same  room  with 
a  motor. 

It  is  better  to  enclose  the  motor  in  a  small  room  by  itself,  well 


POINTERS  ON  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS  269 

ventilated  from  without;  it  keeps  dust  from  the  cylinder  and  foul 
odors  from  the  workrooms.  It  pays  to  use  the  best  cylinder-oil 
for  all  parts  of  a  motor,  as  it  requires  less  of  the  good  oil  than  of  the 
poor  quality  for  lubricating  any  surface  and  is  inducive  of  efficiency. 
In  cleaning  the  internal  parts,  avoid  the  use  of  a  sharp  scraper  on  rub- 
bing surfaces  and  valve  seats.  A  hard- wood  stick  and  kerosene  oil 
will  generally  do  this  work  and  save  much  after-trouble. 

For  regrinding  valves,  emery  should  not  be  used;  pulverized 
pumice-stone  and  oil  do  the  work  well  without  overgrinding. 

Some  of  the  troubles  met  with  in  the  operation  of  explosive 
motors  are  severe  explosions  after  one  or  several  misfires,  by  which 
the  cylinder  becomes  overcharged  with  combustible  mixture  and 
on  firing  produces  an  excessive  explosion  and  kick  in  the  motor. 
This  is  due  to  irregular  work  of  the  motor  or  misfiring  of  the  igni- 
ter. Other  interruptions  sometimes  occur,  such  as  the  sticking  of 
the  exhaust-valve  open  by  gumming  of  the  spindle.  From  this  may 
also  arise  the  back-firing  in  the  muffler-pot  and  exhaust-pipe,  which, 
although  not  pleasant  to  the  ear,  is  not  considered  dangerous,  be- 
cause the  motors  and  all  their  parts  subject  to  this  explosive  force 
are  made  equal  in  working  strength  to  the  greatest  pressure  from 
such  explosions. 

One  possible  evil  is  the  rupture  of  a  weak  muffler-pot  from  the 
choking  of  the  exhaust-pipe  by  soot — a  suggestion  to  make  the  ex- 
haust-pipe from  the  muffler-pot  two  pipe  sizes  larger  than  the  usually 
assigned  size  for  the  motor. 

In  examining  the  interior  of  an  explosive  motor,  care  should  be 
taken  to  remove  any  gas  or  vapor  from  all  chambers  and  recesses 
by  closing  their  inlets  and  turning  over  the  fly-wheel  several  times 
with  the  air-inlet  open.  This  is  most  essential  for  safety  in  remov- 
ing plugs  for  examining  the  sparking  electrodes.  A  few  accidents 
have  happened  when  looking  at  the  sparking  device  through  a  plug- 
hole. 

An  accumulation  of  air  in  the  gas-pipe  is  sometimes  the  cause 
of  failure  in  starting  with  an  electric  igniter,  and  often  attributed  to 
the  failure  of  the  spark.  A  search  in  both  directions  will  find  the 
true  cause  of  failure. 

On  purchasing  a  motor,  the  one  who  is  to  operate  it  should  care- 
fully study  the  mechanism  and  the  instructions,  as  the  detail  in 


270  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

operating  the  three  kinds  of  fuel — gas,  gasoline,  and  kerosene  or 
crude  oil — vary  enough  to  require  special  inquiry  for  the  operation 
of  each  kind. 

The  method  of  ignition  is  also  peculiar  and  requires  special  in- 
struction in  either  of  the  kinds  of  devices  by  which  the  motor  is 
operated.  Whether  tube,  hammer-spark,  or  jump-spark  is  selected, 
they  are  each  so  different  in  detail  as  to  need  special  instruction. 

One  of  the  annoyances  in  explosive-motor  service  is  the  incrus- 
tation of  the  water-jacket  by  lime.  Hard  water,  or  such  as  contains 
a  considerable  amount  of  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  lime,  when  used 
as  a  free-running  stream,  has  been  found  to  choke  a  water-jacket  in 
a  few  months  so  as  to  render  the  jacket  almost  useless  as  a  cooling 
device.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  a  cooling  tank  of  about  twenty 
gallons  per  horse-power  should  be  used,  set  above  the  cylinder  and 
of  such  a  form  as  to  give  large  surface  to  the  air,  with  a  free  circula- 
tion on  all  sides.  A  round  tank  gives  the  least  air-cooling  surface, 
while  a  long  tank  of  galvanized  sheet-iron  with  vertical  corrugated 
sides  has  given  the  most  satisfactory  service. 

By  the  use  of  a  cooling  tank  charged  with  the  best  water  attain- 
able, preferably  rain-water,  and  a  pound  of  caustic  soda  to  each  five 
gallons,  an  encrusted  jacket  can  soon  be  cleaned,  or  the  incrustation 
so  loosened  that  it  can  be  easily  scraped  and  washed  out  through 
the  core  openings.  Acid  and  water  has  been  recommended  and 
used;  but  such  treatment  is  not  as  convenient  as  the  soda-circula- 
tion. 

The  manufacturer,  if  he  understands  his  interests,  usually  fur- 
nishes sufficient  explanatory  matter  to  enable  the  operator  to  under- 
stand all  details.  Often  this  has  been  a  failure,  to  the  detriment  of 
both  maker  and  purchaser ;  but  if  the  seller  thinks  he  can  afford  to 
be  careless  about  this,  the  buyer  need  not,  for  all  shut-downs  and 
interruptions  caused  by  failure  to  operate  a  motor  satisfactorily 
are  more  or  less  expensive. 

For  preventing  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  jacket  or  cooling 
tank  in  winter  there  is  probably  nothing  better  than  a  five  per  cent, 
addition  of  glycerine  or  a  few  pounds  of  chloride  of  calcium  to  the 
water  of  the  cooling  tank  will  prevent  solid  freezing  in  the  coldest 
weather.  For  engines  exposed  to  outside  weather,  ten  per  cent, 
glycerine  may  be  used. 


POINTERS  ON   EXPLOSIVE   MOTORS  271 

Finally,  in  starting  a  gas  or  gasoline-engine,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber a  few  facts  in  regard  to  the  explosive  qualities  of  the  gas  or 
gasoline-mixture.  It  has  been  shown  in  other  parts  of  this  work 
that  the  proportions  of  gas  or  gasoline  and  air  have  their  limits 
for  explosive  effect  and  that  too  much  or  too  little  of  the  fuel  element 
is  non-explosive.  This  is  often  the  real  trouble,  when  in  starting  a 
motor  it  refuses  to  go,  in  which  case  it  is  better  to  shut  off  the  fuel 
and  turn  the  fly-wheel  over  to  clear  the  cylinder  of  the  first  charge 
with  the  relief-cock  open;  it  should  always  be  open  in  starting  to 
save  the  severe  work  of  compression.  The  same  difficulty  may 
also  occur  in  charging  a  self-starting  motor  of  the  larger  size,  which 
cannot  be  turned  over  to  relieve  the  cylinder  of  the  misfired  charge, 
but  by  lifting  the  exhaust-valve  and  charging  lightly  with  some 
pure  air  or  fuel,  as  the  judgment  of  the  engineer  may  suggest,  the 
start  may  be  made.  Herein  lies  the  value  of  positive  and  full  in- 
struction that  every  builder  of  explosive  motors  should  furnish  with 
each  motor  sent  out,  as  well  as  a  practical  lesson  whenever  possible 
to  the  person  that  is  to  operate  the  motor. 

Do  not  once  think  because  a  motor  slows  down  by  the  turn- 
ing on  of  one  or  two  more  machines  than  it  has  been  giving  power 
to,  that  more  fuel  is  all  that  is  needed,  for  it  may  have  been  run- 
ning with  more  or  less  fuel  than  was  due  to  the  greatest  mean 
pressure.  It  may  be  noted  that  1  part  good  illuminating  gas  to  6 
parts  air  or  1  part  of  heavy  oil-gas  to  9  parts  air,  or  1  part  gasoline- 
vapor  to  8  parts  air  gives  the  quickest  explosion,  the  highest 
explosive  temperature,  and  the  greatest  mean  pressure.  Any  de- 
partures from  these  proportions  in  the  mixtures  are  weakening  in 
their  effects,  and  where  the  highest  power  and  efficiency  of  the 
motor  is  required,  any  variation  from  the  above-named  proportions 
is  not  the  most  economical  in  practice.  As  between  the  hit-and- 
miss  charges  and  the  graduation  of  the  charge  in  its  best  mixture, 
there  has  been  and  is  a  margin  for  discussion  in  which  builders  of 
explosive  motors  do  not  agree,  and  may  not,  until  long  experi- 
ence, trials,  and  new  methods  of  regulation  may  lead  to  the  best 
practice. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

EXPLOSIVE-ENGINE   TESTING 

FOR  the  reason  that  elaborate  and  complicated  tests  have  been 
made  and  exploited  in  other  works  on  the  gas-engine,  which  may 
be  referred  to  for  the  details  of  expert  work,  the  author  of  this  work 
has  decided  to  reduce  the  practice  of  testing  explosive  motors  to  a 
commercial  basis  on  which  purchasers  can  comprehend  their  value 
as  a  business  investment  for  power.  The  disposition  of  builders  of 
explosive  engines  to  follow  the  economics  in  construction  in  regard 
to  least  wall  surface  in  contact  with  the  heat  of  combustion,  and  of 
maintaining  the  wall  surface  at  the  highest  practical  temperature 
for  economical  running  by  the  rapid  circulation  of  warm  water  from 
a  tank  or  cooling  coil,  leaves  but  little  to  accomplish,  save  the  proper 
size  and  adjustment  of  the  valves  and  igniters  for  the  engines,  in 
order  that  they  may  properly  perform  their  functions.  The  in- 
dicator card,  if  made  through  a  series  of  varying  proportions  of  gas 
or  gasoline  and  air  mixtures,  will  show  the  condition  of  the  adjust- 
ments for  economic  working.  The  difference  between  the  indicated 
power  for  the  gas  used  by  the  card  and  the  power  delivered  to  the 
dynamometer  or  brake  shows  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  engine. 
The  best  working  card  of  the  engine  should  be  a  satisfactory  test 
to  a  purchaser  that  the  principles  of  construction  are  correct.  A 
brake-trial  certificate  or  observation  should  satisfy  as  to  frictional 
economy,  and  the  price  and  quantity  of  gas  per  horse-power  hour 
should  settle  the  comparative  cost  for  running.  The  variation  in 
the  heating  power  of  illuminating  gas  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
United  States  is  much  less  than  its  variation  in  price.  Producer- 
gas  is  a  specialty  for  local  consumption,  and  its  cost  drops  with  its 
heating  power. 

Apart  from  the  actual  cost  of  gas  in  any  locality  and  the  quan- 
tity required  per  brake  horse-power,  durability  of  a  motor  is  one 
of  the  principal  items  in  the  purchase  of  power. 
272 


EXPLOSIVE-ENGINE  TESTING  273 

In  the  use  of  gasoline,  kerosene,  and  crude  petroleum  in  explo- 
sive engines,  their  heating  values  are  uniform  for  each  kind,  and  as 
motors  are  generally  adjusted  for  the  use  of  one  of  the  above  hydro- 
carbons only,  the  difference  of  cost  between  these  various  fuels  is 
the  best  indication  as  to  the  relative  cost  of  power. 

No  instruments  have  yet  been  contrived  for  giving  the  temper- 
atures of  combustion,  either  initial  or  exhaust,  in  an  internal-com- 
bustion motor;  for  at  the  proper  working  speed  the  changes  of 
temperature  are  so  rapid  that  no  reliable  observation  can  be  made 
even  with  the  electric  thermostat,  as  has  been  tried  in  Europe.  The 
computed  temperatures  are  unreliable  and  at  best  only  approxi- 
mate; hence  the  indicator  card  becomes  the  only  reliable  source 
of  information  as  to  the  action  of  combustion  and  expansion  in  the 
cylinder,  as  well  as  to  the  adjustment  of  the  valves  and  their  proper 
action. 

The  temperature  of  combustion  as  indicated  by  the  fuel-con- 
stituents, and  computed  from  their  known  heat  values,  gives  at 
best  but  misleading  results  as  indicating  the  real  temperature  of 
combustion  in  an  explosive  engine.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  com- 
puted temperatures  could  be  obtained  if  the  contaminating  influ- 
ence of  the  neutral  elements  that  are  mixed  with  the  fuel  of  com- 
bustion, as  well  as  the  large  proportion  of  the  inert  gases  of  previous 
explosions,  could  be  excluded  from  the  cylinder,  when  the  radiation 
and  absorption  of  heat  by  the  cylinder  would  be  the  only  retarding 
influences  in  the  development  of  heat  due  to  the  union  of  the  pure 
elements  of  combustion. 

For  obtaining  the  indicated  horse-power  of  a  gas,  gasoline,  or 
oil-engine,  the  mean  effective  pressure  as  shown  by  the  card  may  be 
obtained  by  dividing  the  length  of  the  card  into  ten  or  any  con- 
venient number  of  parts  vertically,  as  shown  in  Fig.  244,  for  a  four- 
cycle compression-engine.  For  each  section  measure  the  average 
between  the  curve  of  compression  and  the  curve  of  expansion  with  a 
scale  corresponding  with  the  number  of  the  indicator-spring.  Add 
the  measured  distances  and  divide  by  the  number  of  spaces  for  the 
mean  pressure.  With  the  mean  pressure  multiply  the  area  of  the 
cylinder  for  the  gross  pressure.  If  there  have  been  no  misfires,  then 
one-half  the  number  of  revolutions  multiplied  by  the  stroke  and  by 
the  gross  pressure,  and  the  product  divided  by  33,000,  will  give  the 


274 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


indicated  horse-power.  If  there  is  any  discrepancy  along  the  at- 
mospheric line  by  obstruction  in  the  exhaust  or  suction-stroke,  the 
average  must  be  deducted  from  the  mean  pressure. 

The  exhaust-valve,  if  too  small,  or  with  insufficient  lift,  or  a  too 
small  or  too  long  exhaust-pipe,  will  produce  back-pressure  on  the 
return  line,  which  should  be  deducted  from  the  mean  pressure.  A 
small  inlet-valve  or  too  small  lift,  or  any  obstruction  to  a  free  entry 
of  the  charge,  produces  a  back-pressure  on  the  outward  or  suction- 
stroke  and  a  depression  along  the  atmospheric  line,  which  must  also 
be  deducted  from  the  mean  pressure. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  taking  of  an  indicator  card  must  be  done 
when  the  engine  is  running  steadily  and  at  full  load.  During  the 


M      4        «SI       I       ** 

FIG.  244. — Four-cycle  gas-engine  card. 

moment  that  the  pencil  is  on  the  card  there  should  be  no  misfires 
recorded,  in  order  that  the  card  may  represent  the  true  indicated 
horse-power  of  the  engine.  The  record  of  the  speed  of  the  engine 
should  be  taken  at  the  same  time  as  the  card,  but  the  measurement 
of  the  quantity  of  gas  used  cannot  be  accurately  observed  on  the 
dial  of  an  ordinary  gas-meter  during  the  few  moments'  interval  of  the 
card  record  and  speed  count.  For  the  gas  record,  the  engines  should 
be  run  at  least  five  minutes  at  the  same  speed  and  load  and  an  exact 
count  of  the  explosions  made.  The  misfires  or  rather  mischarges  in 
an  engine  running  with  a  constant  load  are  of  no  importance  in  the 
computation  for  power  because  they  are  properly  caused  by  over- 
speed,  and  the  overspeed  and  under  speed  should  make  a  fair  balance 
for  the  average  of  the  run  as  indicated  by  the  speed-counter. 


EXPLOSIVE-ENGINE  TESTING  275 

The  number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  indicated  by  the  meter  for  a  few 
minutes'  run,  multiplied  by  its  hour  exponent  and  divided  by  the 
indicated  power  by  the  card  or  the  actual  horse-power  by  the  brake, 
will  give  the  required  commercial  rating  of  the  engine  as  to  its 
economic  power.  The  difference  as  between  the  cost  of  gas  for  the 
igniter  and  the  cost  of  electric  ignition  is  too  small  to  be  worthy  of 
consideration. 

In  testing  with  gasoline  or  oil  the  detail  of  operation  is  the 
same  as  for  gas,  with  the  only  difference  of  an  exact  measure  of 
the  fluid  actually  consumed  in  an  hour's  run  of  the  engine  under 
a  full  load.  The  loading  of  an  engine  for  the  purpose  of  testing  to 
its  full  power  is  not  always  an  easy  matter;  although,  when  driving 
a  large  amount  of  shafting  and  steady-running  machines,  a  brake 
may  be  conveniently  applied  to  increase  the  work  of  the  engine. 
In  trials  with  a  brake  alone,  a  continual  run  involves  some  difficul- 
ties on  account  of  the  intense  friction  and  heat  produced,  which 
makes  the  brake-power  vary  considerably  and  cause  a  like  variation 
in  the  ignitions. 

Probably  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  testing  the  power  of 
a  motor  is  by  its  application  to  generate  an  electric  current,  which, 
if  properly  arranged  in  detail,  allows  the  test  trial  to  be  continued 
for  a  length  of  time  and  makes  the  test  a  perfectly  reliable  one.  For 
this  purpose  the  motor  may  be  belted  to  a  generating  dynamo  of  the 
same  or  a  little  higher  rating  than  that  of  the  motor.  A  short  wir- 
ing-system with  a  volt  and  ampere-meter  and  a  sufficient  number 
of  16-candle-power  lamps  in  circuit,  of  a  standard  voltage  and  known 
amperage,  will  indicate  the  power  generated  in  kilowatts,  to  which 
should  be  added  the  loss  of  efficiency  in  the  dynamo. 

From  this  data  the  actual  horse-power  of  the  motor  may  be 
computed,  which  with  the  fuel  measurement  and  the  speed  of  the 
motor  during  test  trial  is  all  that  is  needed  for  a  commercial  rating. 

In  testing  motors  with  ordinary  illuminating  gas  under  street 
pressure  as  used  for  lighting  purposes,  the  ordinary  meter  measure- 
ment will  be  found  correct,  but  with  natural  or  other  gas  supplied 
at  high  pressures,  the  pressure  should  be  reduced  by  a  pressure- 
regulator,  or  by  drawing  the  gas  from  a  properly  weighted  gas- 
holder. A  one-inch  water-pressure  in  an  inverted  glass  siphon  gives 
the  proper  pressure  for  meter  measurement.  The  details  for  the 


276  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

finer  tests  of  explosive  motors  have  but  little  commercial  value  and 
require  much  expert  experience  in  the  computations  in  such  tests; 
so  that  for  ordinary  purposes  in  testing  for  best  effect  the  cylinder- 
cooling  water  should  be  run  long  enough  and  with  the  engine  run- 
ning at  full  load  to  establish  an  overflow  temperature  of  175°  Fah., 
which  has  been  found  to  give  a  good  working  efficiency  in  the  cylin- 
der temperature.  This  may  be  readily  obtained  by  regulating  the 
quantity  of  flowing  water.  Then  the  actual  measurement  of  the 
gas  or  other  fuel  and  its  cost  as  compared  with  the  brake  horse- 
power may  be  said  to  give  a  fairly  just  measure  of  its  fuel-economy. 
The  test  of  endurance  is  a  strictly  mechanical  one  due  to  design  and 
quality  of  construction,  which  may  be  obtained,  first,  by  inspection 
or  detailed  examination  of  the  motor,  and  further  from  guarantee  of 
the  builder. 

BACK-FIRING    IN    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS 

The  so-called  back-firing  may  be  located  in  the  exhaust-pipe  or 
passages  and  is  usually  caused  by  a  misfired  charge  being  fired  by 
the  exhaust  of  the  next  impulse-charge.  It  may  be  recognized  by 
its  peculiar  sound  and  seen  at  the  exhaust-pipe  terminal.  The 
cause  of  misfiring  is  a  frequent  effect  of  the  uncertainty  of  hot-tube 
ignition  in  which  there  is  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the  tube 
at  the  proper  point,  when  the  greatest  compression  occurs.  This 
peculiar  condition  has  brought  out  the  use  of  timing  valves  in  large 
engines. 

The  regulation  of  engine  speed  by  varying  the  gas  charge  makes 
a  variation  in  temperature  at  the  ignition  of  the  charges  and  so 
makes  misfires  a  persistent  tendency.  Short-circuiting  of  the  elec- 
tric current  in  the  break  and  jump-spark  ignition  systems  is  often  a 
puzzling  trouble  to  locate  when  the  motor  gets  to  kicking. 

There  is  another  form  of  back-firing  which  is  more  perplexing 
still.  It  occurs  in  the  inlet  passage  between  the  point  of  air  admis- 
sion or  mixing-valve  and  the  actual  inlet  to  the  cylinder.  The  first 
and  most  readily  perceived  is  a  leaky  inlet-valve,  transmitting  the 
combustion  within  the  cylinder  to  the  mixture  without.  The 
other  is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  combustion  of  a  lean  mixture 
or  a  rich  mixture  is  a  prolonged  one,  and  that  a  lingering  flame  hold- 
ing over  during  exhaust-stroke  and  until  the  next  opening  of  the 


BACK-FIRING   IN   EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS  277 

inlet-valve  fires  the  supply  in  the  mixture  chamber.  Invariably  it 
has  been  the  case  of  the  lean  mixture,  notwithstanding  the  foredrawn 
conclusion  that  it  should  be  with  the  other,  that  the  lean  mixture, 
with  its  excess  of  oxygen,  would  be  snapped  up  and  quickly  con- 
sumed; that  the  rich  mixture,  seeking  out  the  last  atom  of  oxygen, 
would  linger  in  the  inlet  chamber,  unexploded. 

Irregularity  of  explosion,  often  a  source  of  apprehension  as  to 
back-firing,  is  due  to  extreme  governing  action  at  full  or  partial 
load,  which  may  need  no  further  investigation  than  to  find  and  cor- 
rect, if  the  governor  is  not  acting  freely.  A  sticking  action  of  the 
governor,  often  unnoticed,  may  lead  to  a  suspicion  of  other  troubles. 
The  effect  of  irregular  governing  is  shown  in  explosions  of  various 
strength  in  succession  or  at  various  intervals. 

This  is  one  of  the  points  requiring  careful  management  in  start- 
ing suction  gas-motors  with  gasoline.  The  change  from  the  feed- 
adjustment  of  a  high-compression  suction  gas-motor  for  starting 
with  gasoline  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  the  least  injection 
of  gasoline  that  will  produce  an  explosive  charge,  and  thus  avoid 
possible  danger  that  may  arise  from  a  rich  charge  in  a  motor  de- 
signed for  weak  charges. 


AND    USE   OF   GASOLINE-ENGINES 

Rules  and  requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers for  the  installation  and  running  of  gasoline-engines. 

As  these  rules  are  standard  for  practically  all  of  the  United 
States,  they  should  be  of  interest  to  both  the  manufacturer  and 
the  user  of  gasoline-engines. 

The  rules  for  installation  are  as  follows : 

1.  Location  of  Engines — 

a.  Should,  wherever  possible,  be  located  on  the  ground-floor. 

b.  In  workshops  or  rooms  where  dust  and  inflammable  flyings 
prevail,  the  engine  to  be  enclosed  in  a  fire-proof  compartment  well 
ventilated  to  the  outer  air  at  floor  and  ceiling. 

c.  If  located  on  a  wooden  floor  the  engine  to  be  set  on  a  metal 
plate  turned  up  at  the  edges. 


278  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

2.  Supply-tank — 

a.  Shall  be  located  outside  the  building,  underground,  where 
possible,  at  least  thirty  feet  removed  from  all  buildings,  and  below 
the  level  of  the  lowest  pipe  in  the  building  used  in  connection  with 
the  apparatus. 

b.  If  impracticable  to  bury  the  supply-tank,  the  same  may  be  in- 
stalled in  a  non-combustible  building  or  vault  properly  ventilated, 
preferably  from  the  bottom,  always  remembering  that  it  must  be 
below  the  level  of  the  lowest  pipe  in  the  building  used  in  connection 
with  the  apparatus. 

c.  Auxiliary  inside  tanks,  if  used,  shall  not  exceed  one  quart  in 
capacity,  and  shall  not  be  placed  on,  in,  or  under  the  engine,  and 
shall  be  so  arranged  that  when  the  supply-valve  is  closed  a  drain- 
valve  into  the  return-pipe  will  be  automatically  opened.     (See  also 
paragraph  8,  Note.) 

3.  Piping — 

a.  None  but  tested  pipe  to  be  used. 

b.  Connections  to  outside  tank  shall  not  be  located  near  nor 
placed  in  the  same  trench  with  other  piping. 

c.  Openings  for  pipes  through  outside  walls  shall  be  securely 
cemented  and  made  water  and  oil-tight. 

d.  Piping  to  be  run  as  direct  as  possible. 

e.  Piping  for  gasoline-feed  and  overflow  from  auxiliary  inside 
tank  and  feed-cup  shall  be  installed  with  a  good  pitch  so  the  gasoline 
will  drain  back  to  the  supply-tank. 

/.  Fill  and  vent-pipes  leading  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  shall 
be  boxed  or  jacketed  to  prevent  freezing  of  earth  about  them  and 
loosening  or  breakage  of  connections. 

4.  Muffler  or  Exhaust-pot— 

a.  Shall  be  placed  on  a  firm  foundation  and  be  kept  at  least  one 
foot  from  woodwork  or  combustible  materials. 

5.  Exhaust-pipe— 

a.  Exhaust-pipe,  whether  direct  from  engine  or  from  mufflers, 
shall  extend  to  the  outside  of  the  building,  and  be  kept  at  least  six 
inches  from  any  woodwork  or  combustible  material,  and  if  run 
through  floors   or   partitions  shall    be  provided  with  ventilated 
thimbles. 

b.  Shall  in  no  case  discharge  into  a  chimney. 


FIRE  UNDERWRITERS'  REGULATIONS  279 

6.  Care  and  Attendance— 

Due  consideration  shall  be  given  the  cleaning  of  the  cylinder, 
valves,  and  exhaust-pipe  as  often  as  the  quality  of  the  fuel  may 
necessitate. 

The  rules  for  construction  are  as  follows : 

These  rules  are  not  to  be  considered  as  specifications  for  the  shop 
construction  of  an  engine,  inasmuch  as  questions  of  design,  efficiency, 
and  operation  are  largely  omitted.  They  cover  only  the  outlines 
of  construction  of  parts  of  special  interest  to  the  underwriters,  and 
it  should  be  noted  that  all  engines  conforming  to  the  same  are  not 
of  equal  merit. 

7.  Outside  Supply-tank — 

a.  Must  be  constructed  of  iron  or  steel  plate,  securely  riveted 
together  or  pressed  into  form.     Tanks  should  be  galvanized,  or 
painted  on  the  outside  with  rust-proof  paint. 

b.  Must  be  provided  with  a  fill-pipe  and  a  vent-pipe. 

c.  The  fill  and  vent-pipes  to  terminate  in  an  iron  box,  cover  of 
which  should  be  flush  with  the  ground,  and  locked  with  a  padlock. 

These  pipes  should  be  provided  with  screen  near  the  top  and  the 
box  to  be  properly  ventilated. 

8.  Inside  Auxiliary  Tank — 

Note :  Auxiliary  inside  tanks  with  gravity  feed  are  not  advised 
as  their  use  requires  extra  piping  and  fittings  and  an  additional 
receptacle  containing  gasoline  is  introduced  within  the  premises. 

The  gasoline  feed-cup  provided  for  below  is  sufficient  for  all  or- 
dinary purposes. 

a.  Must  not  exceed  one  quart  in  capacity  and  must  be  construct- 
ed in  an  improved  manner  of  brass  or  copper  of  at  least  No.  20  B. 
and  S.  gauge  or  else  made  in  a  casting. 

b.  Must  have  no  valves  or  plugs  opening  into  the  room  with  the 
exception  of  an  air-vent. 

c.  Must  be  provided  with  an  overflow  connection  draining  to  the 
outside  supply-tank. 

9.  Gasoline  Feed-cup— 

a.  Must  be  of  cast  metal  rigidly  secured  to  the  engine-frame  or 
mixing  chamber,  and  must  not  exceed  in  capacity  one-half  pint. 

b.  Must  be  provided  with  an  approved  controlling-valve  or  regu- 
lator. 


280  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

c.  Must  be  arranged  to  prevent  spattering,  dripping,  or  exposure 
of  gasoline  during  operation  or  with  the  engine  at  rest. 

d.  Must  be  provided  with  an  overflow  connection  draining  to  the 
outside  supply- tank. 

10.  Gasoline  Feed-pump— 

a.  Should  be  of  the  simple  single-plunger  type  with  check-valve 
as  close  to  the  pump  as  convenient. 

b.  No  packing  should  be  used  on  plunger  of  pump. 

11.  Igniter  or  Exploder— 

a.  Electric  ignition  must  be  used. 

12.  Muffler  or  Exhaust-pot — 

a.  Must  be  made  equal  in  strength  to  the  cylinder  or  other  parts 
subject  to  effects  of  the  explosion,  and  should  be  made  in  cylindrical 
or  spherical  form  with  as  few  joints  as  possible. 

6.  Must  be  provided  with  a  draw-off  or  drain- valve  placed  near 
the  bottom  and  below  the  exhaust-pipe  connection. 

13.  Valves— 

a.  Shut-off  valves  must  close  against  the  gasoline  supply,  must 
be  made  of  brass  and  have  a  stuffing-cap  of  liberal  size  arranged  to 
force  the  packing  against  the  valve-stem. 

b.  No  packing  likely  to  be  affected  by  gasoline  to  be  used. 

c.  Regulating  valves,  if  not  designed  to  close  against  the  gasoline 
supply,  or  if  used  as  a  shut-off  valve,  must  be  provided  with  a  special 
stuffing-cap  having  a  follower-gland  designed  to  hold  and  compress 
the  packing. 

Note:  Engine- valves  of  the  poppet  type  should  preferably  be 
so  placed  that  gravity  will  act  with  spring  to  keep  the  valve 
closed. 

14.  Pipings  and  Fittings — 

a.  Tank  and  drain-piping  must  be  of  brass  or  iron,  not  smaller 
than  f-inch  size.     Drain-pipe  to  be  at  least  one  size  larger  than 
supply-pipe. 

b.  Connections  by  right  and  left  couplings  are  advised  in  place  of 
unions. 

If  unions  are  used  they  must  be  of  brass,  with  a  ground  conical 
joint,  obviating  the  use  of  packing  or  gaskets. 

c.  A  filter  must  be  provided  in  the  gasoline  supply-pipe  located 
near  the  engine  and  accessible  for  purpose  of  cleaning. 


FIRE  UNDERWRITERS'   REGULATIONS  281 

Note :  A  substantial  flange-fitting  containing  fine  brass  gauze  is 
recommended  for  use  as  a  filter. 

15.  Engine  Base — 

a.  Must  not  be  used  as  a  storage  space  for  gasoline  or  any  other 
material. 

b.  It  is  recommended  that  the  base  be  constructed  with  a  groove 
or  channel  to  prevent  lubricating-oil  from  soaking  into  floors. 

16.  Lubricating  Oil-drips  and  Pans — 

a.  Must  be  provided  where  necessary  to  prevent  the  spilling 
of  oil. 

6.  Cranks  and  other  rapidly  revolving  or  reciprocating  parts 
must  be  shielded  to  prevent  throwing  of  oil. 

17.  Name-plate — 

a.  Must  be  provided  with  a  plate  giving  the  name  of  the  manu- 
facturer, the  trade-name  of  the  engine,  and  its  rated  horse-power. 

The  Southeastern  Tariff  Association,  operating  in  Alabama, 
Florida,  Georgia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  some 
other  Southern  States,  uses  the  following  gasoline-permit: 

Specifications  to  which  all  gasoline-engines  must  conform  in 
order  to  be  approved  for  their  installation: 

1.  Engines  to  be  ignited  by  electric  spark;  tube-igniters  not 
allowed. 

2.  Storage-tanks   for  gasoline  shall  be  located  under  ground, 
outside  of  the  engine-room,  and  top  of  tank  shall  be  below  the  level 
of  the  base  of  engine  and  not  less  than  ten  feet  away  from  any  build- 
ing.    Gasoline  must  be  drawn  from  the  general  supply-tank,  either 
to  the  engine,  or  the  auxiliary  or  secondary  reservoir  or  receptacle 
into  which  the  pump  discharges,  and  out  of  which  the  gasoline  is 
fed  into  the  engine.     The  overflow  of  said  auxiliary  or  secondary 
reservoir  or  receptacle  must  lead  back  to  the  main  storage-tank 
and  be  of  four  times  the  capacity  of  the  pump. 

3.  Tanks  to  be  cylindrical  in  shape  and  constructed  as  follows: 
viz.,  less  than  200-gallon  capacity  to  be  of  not  less  than  J-inch 
steel  throughout.     Tanks  of  200  to  300-gallon  capacity  to  be  of  not 
less  than  -j^-inch  steel  throughout;  heads  to  be  stayed  with  iron; 
seams  of  all  tanks  to  be  securely  riveted  and  caulked.     Tanks  to  be 
coated  with  tar  before  being  placed  in  the  ground.     No  tank  of 
larger  than  300  gallons  allowed. 


282  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

4.  Pipes  leading  from  storage-tank  to  engine  must  be  put  to- 
gether at  every  joint,  metal  to  metal,  with  pipe-screw  connections. 
Supply  and  overflow-pipes  to  incline  toward  tank  in  order  that  sur- 
plus gasoline  may  drain  back  to  tank  from  building  when  engine  is 
not  in  operation;  hand- valves  to  be  placed  in  each  supply  and  over- 
flow-pipe outside  of  building,  said  valves  to  be  closed  when  filling 
tank  and  when  engine  is  shut  down  for  the  night.     A  vent  provided 
with  screw-cap  must  be  attached  to  tank,  said  pipe  to  be  open 
during  filling.     Storage-tank  must  be  always  filled  by  daylight, 
and  all  attachments  between  supply-wagon,  tank-car,  or  barrels 
shall  be  tight-fitting  screw-connections. 

5.  Any  form  of  carbureter  or  vaporizer  (that  is,  engines  with  a 
carbureter  or  vaporizer  so  constructed  that  by  the  passing  of  air 
over  or  through  the  gasoline  the  explosive  mixture  is  formed  within 
the  carbureter  or  outside  of  the  engine  cylinder)  is  prohibited.    This 
rule  will  apply  except  where  vaporizer  or  carbureter  has  been  specif- 
ically approved  by  this  Association. 


KEROSENE-OIL   ENGINES 

In  New  York  City  gasoline-engines  are  prohibited.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  requirements  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers for  the  installation  and  use  of  kerosene-oil  engines: 

Location  of  Engine— 

Engine  shall  not  be  located  where  the  normal  temperature  is 
above  95°  F.,  or  within  ten  feet  of  any  fire. 

If  enclosed  in  room,  same  must  be  well  ventilated,  and  if  room 
has  a  wood  floor,  the  entire  floor  must  be  covered  with  metal  and 
kept  free  from  the  drippings  of  oil. 

If  engine  is  not  enclosed,  and  if  set  on  a  wood  floor,  then  the 
floor  under  and  three  feet  outside  of  it  must  be  covered  with  metal. 

Feed-tank — 

If  located  inside  the  building,  shall  not  exceed  five  gallons  in 
capacity,  and  must  be  made  of  galvanized  iron  or  copper,  not  less 
than  No.  22  B.  and  S.  gauge,  and  must  be  double  seamed  and  sol- 
dered, and  must  be  set  in  a  drip-pan  on  the  floor  at  the  base  of  the 
engine. 

Tanks  of  more  than  five-gallon  capacity  must  be  made  of  heavy 


FIRE  UNDERWRITERS'   REGULATIONS  283 

iron  or  steel,  be  riveted,  and  be  located,  preferably,  underground 
outside  of  the  building.  If  there  is  no  space  available  outside  the 
building  for  a  tank,  it  may,  by  written  permission  from  this  Board, 
be  located  in  an  approved  vault  attached  to  the  building,  or  in  a 
non-combustible  and  well-ventilated  compartment  inside  the  build- 
ing, but  no  such  tank  shall  exceed  five  barrels  capacity. 

Tanks,  irrespective  of  the  method  of  feed,  must  not  be  located 
above  the  floor  on  which  the  engine  is  set. 

The  base  of  an  engine  must  not  be  used  in  lieu  of  a  tank  as  a 
receptacle  for  feed-oil.  A  tank,  if  satisfactorily  insulated  from  the 
heat  of  the  engine,  and  approved  by  the  Board,  may  be  placed  inside 
of  the  base. 

In  starting  an  engine,  gas  only,  properly  arranged,  must  be  used 
to  heat  the  combustion-chamber. 

A  high-grade  kerosene  oil  must  be  used,  the  flash  test  of  which 
shall  be  not  lower  than  100°  F. 

Oily  waste  and  rags  must  be  kept  in  an  approved  self-closing 
metal  can,  with  legs  to  raise  it  six  inches  above  the  floor. 

The  supply  of  oil,  unless  in  an  approved  tank  outside  the  build- 
ing, or  in  a  non-combustible  compartment,  as  above  provided  for, 
shall  not  exceed  one  barrel,  which  may  be  stored  on  the  premises, 
provided  same  is  kept  in  an  unexposed  location  ten  feet  distant  from 
any  fire,  artificial  light,  and  inflammable  material,  and  oil  drawn  by 
daylight  only. 

A  drip-pan  must  be  placed  under  the  barrel. 

Empty  kerosene  barrels  must  not  be  kept  on  the  premises. 


CHAPTER    XX 

GAS     AND     GASOLINE-MOTORS — THE     AMATEUR'S     MOTOR 

WE  illustrate  in  the  following  pages  a  gas  or  gasoline-motor 
most  suitable  for  amateur  workmen  who  wish  to  build  for  them- 
selves an  experimental  power-motor.  The  motor  is  of  the  four- 
cycle type  of  about  1J  horse-power.  The  castings  and  all  parts, 
even  the  necessary  screws,  with  the  blue  prints  for  working  finish, 
or  the  most  difficult  parts  are  furnished  machined  with  the  blue 


FIG.  245. — The  Weed  gas  or  gasoline-motor. 

prints  and  instructions  by  The  Sipp  Electric  and  Machine  Com- 
pany, Paterson,  N.  J.  The  blue  prints  contain  all  details  of  the 
parts  and  may  be  purchased  separate,  if  desired,  for  $2.50  for  the 
set.  A  complete  set  of  the  castings,  parts,  and  screws,  with  the 
blue  prints  for  $15;  thus  saving  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
work  for  amateurs,  the  pattern-making. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  push-rod  from  the  crank  on  the  secondary 
shaft  operates  the  exhaust-valve  and  also  the  circulating-pump  for 
forcing  water  from  a  tank  near  by;  but  when  located  where  there 
is  a  flow  of  water,  or  if  the  use  of  an  elevated  cooling  tank  can  be 
utilized,  the  pump  may  be  left  off.  The  action  of  the  governor  is 
284 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


285 


very  simple;  the  end  of  the  spindle  drops  into  a  notch  in  the  valve- 
spindle  when  the  speed  is  excessive,  holding  the  valve  open  for 
miss-charge  until  the  normal  speed  is  regained.  Where  illuminating 


286 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


gas  is  not  available,  an  independent  carbureter  is  supplied  to 
produce  an  air  and  vapor  gas  from  gasoline,  using  a  rubber  tube 
to  connect  the  carbureter  directly  to  the  gas-cock  nozzle. 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS  287 

MOTORS  OF  THE  GEMMER  ENGINE  AND  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY, 

MARION,  IND. 

The  gas  and  gasoline-engines  of  this  company  are  of  the  four- 
cycle type  made  on  the  standard  principles  of  design.  The  valve 
and  ignition-gear  is  novel  in  design;  the  governor,  igniter-trip,  and 
gasoline-pump  are  all  operated  from  the  reducing-gear  pin  by  a 
connecting-rod  to  a  slide  to  which  the  inertia  governor  and  gaso- 
line-pump are  attached,  making  a  hit-and-miss  regulation. 

The  governor  is  very  simple,  consisting  only  of  a  weight,  a 
hardened  steel  finger,  and  a  small  spring.  The  speed  is  changed 


FIG.  248. — The  Gemmer  gas  and  gasoline-engine. 

by  adjusting  the  spring  by  means  of  a  knurled  thumb-screw.  This 
is  easily  done  while  the  engine  is  running. 

The  carriage  rides  on  a  steel  slide,  which  gives  it  a  very  dura- 
ble bearing.  An  adjustable-gib  provides  for  wear. 

In  operation,  when  the  engine  is  below  normal  speed,  the  gov- 
ernor-finger engages  with  the  sliding  bar,  as  shown  in  cut,  driving 
it  forward  and  opening  the  fuel-valve  (the  round  stem  shown  at 
end  of  bar),  permitting  a  charge  to  be  drawn  into  the  cylinder. 
As  the  carriage  returns  it  engages  with  a  pin  on  the  bar  and  draws 
it  back,  and  the  igniter  is  snapped,  igniting  the  compressed  charge, 
and  giving  an  impulse  that  brings  the  engine  up  to  the  proper 


288 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


speed.  When  above  normal  speed  the  governor-weight  drags 
behind  and  causes  the  finger  to  miss  the  bar,  letting  it  remain 
stationary.  This  leaves  the  fuel-valve  closed,  and  only  pure  air 
is  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  until  the  speed  again  falls  below  normal 
and  the  finger  engages  the  bar  as  before.  As  shown,  the  igniter- 
trip  is  mounted  on  the  sliding  bar  and  moves  only  when  it  does, 
hence  the  igniter  is  snapped  only  when  a  fuel  charge  is  admitted,  thus 
more  than  doubling  the  life  of  the  igniter-points  and  the  batteries. 
The  carriage  operates  the  lunger  of  the  pump,  that  draws 


FIG.  249. — Valve  and  pump  gear;  Gemmer  engine. 

the  gasoline  supply  from  a  tank  placed  under  the  ground,  outside 
the  building,  and  forces  it  into  a  small  reservoir  above  the  vapor- 
izer. The  plunger  ends  in  a  handle,  that  has  a  projection  which 
fits  in  between  two  lugs  on  the  carriage,  and  by  which  it  is  drawn 
back  and  forth.  This  plunger  may  be  operated  by  hand,  inde- 
pendently of  the  carriage,  by  simply  raising  the  handle  to  a  hori- 
zontal position. 

The  operation  and  general  principles  of  construction  of  the  ver- 
tical engine  are  the  same  as  the  horizontal  and,  in  general,  the  same 
description  of  details  applies  to  this  type. 


GAS  AND  GASOLINE-MOTORS 


289 


FIG.  250. — Gemmer  vertical  engine. 


290  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

The  cylinder  is  placed  downward,  with  the  crank-shaft  up,  as  it 
can  be  lubricated  much  better  and  all  parts,  especially  the  piston 
and  connecting-rod,  are  much  easier  to  get  at  than  if  the  cylinder 
were  the  other  way  up. 

The  governor  is  attached  to  the  reducing-gear.  A  A  are  the 
weights.  When  the  speed  is  above  normal,  these  weights  fly  out, 
overcoming  the  tension  in  the  spring  B  and  sliding  hardened  steel 
collar  C  toward  the  gear-wheel  D,  when  the  steel  piece  E  on  the 
lever  F  engages  with  the  steel  catch  G  and  holds  open  the  exhaust- 
valve.  The  exhaust-valve  is  opened  by  a  cam  W  on  gear  D, 
pressing  down  on  roller  J  mounted  on  a  hardened  steel  pin  in 
lever  F,  which  presses  down  the  stem  H,  opening  the  valve.  When 
the  speed  returns  to  normal  and  the  cam  again  presses  down  stem 
H  the  tension  of  the  spring  B  brings  the  weights  AA  together, 
moving  the  collar  C  so  that  the  E  returning  misses  the  catch  G, 
permitting  the  valve  to  close,  when  the  engine  takes  up  its  regular 
cycle.  This  governor  is  very  sensitive  and  holds  the  speed  con- 
stant, making  the  engine  suitable  for  operating  a  cream-separator 
or  any  machine  requiring  a  steady  speed. 

The  pump  draws  the  gasoline  from  the  supply  tank,  which 
may  be  placed  outside  of  the  building,  thus  complying  with  the 
insurance  regulations.  The  engine  is  shipped  with  this  tank  in 
the  wooden  sub-base,  as  shown  in  the  section.  The  pump  may  be 
worked  by  hand  at  will,  which  is  a  great  convenience,  as  the  gaso- 
line-vaporizer reservoir  must  be  filled  before  starting. 

In  the  vaporizer  the  gasoline  is  fed  through  a  sight-feed  needle- 
valve  and  drops  onto  a  brass  wire  screen,  where  it  is  caught  by 
the  incoming  air  and  sprayed  through  other  screens  of  graduated 
meshes,  atomizing  it  perfectly.  This  vapor  passes  through  the 
fuel-valve,  opened  at  the  proper  time  by  the  governor,  and  is 
mixed  with  the  necessary  amount  of  air  for  perfect  combustion 
and  enters  the  cylinder  through  the  inlet-valve.  Any  possible 
mixture  of  vapor  and  air  desired  is  obtained  by  simply  turning 
the  brass  knob,  which  controls  the  passages  to  both  the  gas  and 
air  chambers  of  the  vaporizer. 

The  gas-engines  of  the  Westinghouse  Machine  Company,  East 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  are  built  in  the  vertical  and  horizontal  form  of  the 
four-cycle  type  peculiar  to  their  unique  design,  and  also  a  new 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


291 


type  of  double-acting  model  in  single  and  cross-tandem  units  of 
great  power. 

In  Fig.  251  we  illustrate  a  section  of  their  standard  vertical 
model  which  is  built  in  units  of  one,  two,  and  three-cylinder 
combinations,  in  sizes  from  10  to  300-brake  horse-power. 


FIG.  251. — Westinghouse  standard  vertical  gas-engine. 

Among  the  claims  for  special  good  service  in  the  Westinghouse 
motors  are  pistons  of  unusual  length,  nearly  twice  their  diameter, 
providing  ample  bearing  surface.  A  cylinder  centre-line  offset  from 
crank-centre  on  the  impulse  side,  for  reducing  the  angularity  of 


292  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

the  connecting-rod  on  the  power  stroke.  All  valve  and  igniter 
movements  controlled  by  a  single  cam-shaft. 

The  governing  is  by  a  centrifugal  fly-ball  type  that  controls  the 
speed  by  varying  the  quantity  of  fuel  mixture. 

In  Fig.  252  is  shown  the  double-break  spark-igniter,  which  is 
also  a  novelty,  and  \vhich  may  be  made  to  give  simultaneous  or 
successive  sparks  as  found  best  for  perfect  ignition. 

Duplex  ignition,  by  its  constancy  of  action,  is  a  most  desirable 
feature  of  uniformity  in  the  running  of  large  units  for  electric 
lighting  and  power. 

In  Fig.  253   is   illustrated  the  three-throw  shaft  of  this  com- 


FIG.  252. — Westinghouse-ignition-plug. 

pany  with  cranks  at  120°,  counterbalanced  and  showing  the 
method  of  bolting  on  the  counterbalance. 

In  Fig.  254  we  illustrate  the  new  double-acting  gas-engine  of 
the  Westinghouse  Company. 

In  construction  the  engine  embodies  many  established  features 
of  modern  steam-engine  practice.  From  crank  to  cylinders  the 
construction  is  that  of  a  horizontal  steam-engine  suitably  strength- 
ened in  proportion  to  the  increased  maximum  pressure  due  to  the 
explosion  of  the  charge.  The  design  of  cylinders,  pistons,  and 
valves,  of  course,  departs  materially  from  steam-engine  practice. 
The  cylinders  are  double- walled,  with  the  outer  walls  split  per- 
ipherally to  permit  independent  expansion  and  contraction  without 
placing  the  cylinder-casting  under  stress. 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS  293 

The  many  difficulties  arising  in  providing  a  suitable  packing- 
gland  for  the  cylinder-heads  have  been  overcome  by  means  of  a 
simple  metallic  packing  similar  in  some  respects  to  that  used  on 
high-pressure  steam-engines. 

Both  valves  are  of  the  single-beat  poppet  type  and  seat  vertically 
along  the  same  axis,  the  admission-valve  opening  downward  and 
the  exhaust  upward.  The  admission-valve  is  mounted  in  a  sepa- 
rate bonnet  which,  together  with  the  valve,  may  be  readily  removed 
without  dismantling  any  parts  of  the  engine  other  than  the  tappet- 
lever  through  which  the  cam  motion  is  imparted  to  the  valve. 
Both  admission  and  exhaust  valves  are  of  steel  and  are  held  to 
their  seats  by  spiral  springs.  The  exhaust-valve  is  water  cooled. 


FIG.  253. — Three-crank  counterbalanced-shaft. 

It  is  bored  hollow  throughout  its  length,  and  this  canal  conveys 
cooling  water  to  the  head  of  the  valve;  the  water  returns  in  the 
opposite  direction  through  an  inner  concentric  tube,  finally  emerg- 
ing at  the  lower  end.  By  spraying  a  small  part  of  the  jacket- water 
into  the  exhaust-pipes,  the  temperature  of  the  pipe  may  be  kept 
at  a  comfortable  point  through  the  absorption  of  the  latent  heat 
of  evaporation  of  the  water  used. 

Both  pistons  and  the  piston-rod  are  water  cooled,  as  well  as 
other  parts  subjected  to  internal  heat.  Means  for  introducing 
the  cooling  water  is  secured  by  a  telescopic  pipe  connection  bolted 
to  the  inside  of  the  cross-head  guide.  The  inner  tube  of  this  tele- 
scopic joint  is  attached  to  the  cross-head  at  such  a  point  as  to  con- 
vey the  cooling  water  to  the  end  of  the  piston-rod  bore,  whence 


294 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


295 


it  proceeds  in  succession  through  the  two  pistons,  emerging  through 
a  bronze  tail-rod  extending  through  the  rear  cylinder-head.  Each 
piston  is  a  one-piece  casting,  cored  hollow  to  accommodate  the 
circulating  water,  and  packed  by  cast-iron  packing-rings  set  out 
with  flat  steel  springs.  In  order  to  convey  the  water  in  and  out 
of  the  piston,  deflecting  plugs  are  inserted  at  the  proper  points  in 
the  rod-bore.  A  cast-iron  jacket  surrounds  the  tail-rod  and  re- 
ceives the  water  emerging  from  it,  whence  it  is  drained  away. 

The  one-lay  shaft  paralleling  the  cylinders  operates,  through 
cams,  all  of  the  valve  movements  of  the  engine.  Independent 
cams  are  provided  for  inlet-valves,  exhaust-valves,  and  igniters, 
so  that  the  action  of  each  valve  may  be  timed  in  order  to  secure 
the  best  results.  The  main  cams  are  all  of  cast  iron  with  working 
surfaces  chilled  and  ground. 

The  engine  is  started  by  compressed  air,  and  for  this  purpose 
a  special  disengaging  gear  is  provided  which  isolates  the  rear 
cylinder,  and  on  admitting  the  compressed  air  allows  the  cylinder 
to  operate  as  an  air-motor  until  the  regular  combustion  cycle  is 
taken  up  in  the  forward  cylin- 
der; the  rear  cylinder  may  then 
be  thrown  into  normal  action. 

The  engines  built  by  the 
Lambert  Gas  and  Gasoline 
Engine  Company,  Anderson, 
Ind.,  are  all  of  the  horizon- 
tal four-cycle  type.  They  are 
scheduled  in  fifteen  sizes,  from 
1  to  40  B.  H.  P.  The  valves 
are  all  of  the  poppet  type  and 
are  operated  by  a  secondary 
shaft  and  worm  reducing-gear. 
The  exhaust-valve  is  opened  by  a  lever  across  and  under  the  end 
of  the  cylinder,  the  lever  having  a  roller  riding  against  a  cam 
on  the  secondary  shaft.  The  exhaust-chamber  has  a  water  cir- 
culation through  a  jacket,  and  the  cylinder-head  is  also  jacketed 
and  connected,  so  that  there  can  be  no  leak  into  the  cylinder  from 
the  water  circulation. 

In  Fig.  255  is  shown  the  left  side  with  the  valve  gear  and  loca- 


FIG.  255. — The  Lambert  gas  and  gaso- 
line-engine. 


296 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


tion  of  the  governor,  which  is  driven  by  a  bevel  gear  on  the  secondary 
shaft. 

In  Fig.  256  is  shown  the  detailed  end  view  of  the  engine;  the 
bell-crank  lever  that  operated  the  gas  inlet-valve  from  a  cam 
on  the  secondary  shaft,  as  also  the  sparking-cam  o  at  the  end  of  the 
shaft. 

The  spark-breaker  and  electrode  are  fixed  on  a  small-eared 
flange  bolted  to  the  cylinder-head,  through  which  a  rock-shaft  and 


FIG.  256. — The  Lambert  valve  and  ignition-gear. 

insulated  electrode  pass.  One  arm  of  the  rock-shaft  presses  the 
electrode  on  the  inside,  while  the  outside  arm  is  attached  to  a 
connecting-rod,  operated  by  the  spring  lever  z  and  cam-block  k, 
which  is  adjustable.  The  amount  of  pressure  of  the  inside  arm 
is  adjusted  by  the  nuts  x  and  y  on  the  connecting-rod. 

In  Fig.  257  is  shown  the  electric  battery,  sparking-coil,  and 
wiring,  in  which  H  and  G  are  the  binding-posts  on  the  valve- 
chamber  and  insulated  electrode.  A  relief-cock  is  furnished  for 
starting  these  engines. 

In  Fig.  258  is  shown  the  gas-regulator  used  with  the  Lambert 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


297 


engines — a  most  useful 
adjunct  where  the  gas- 
pressure  is  not  uniform. 
A  priming-cup  for  start- 
ing the  gasoline-engines 
and  a  gasoline-pump  op- 
erated by  the  cam-shaft 
are  not  shown  in  the 
cuts. 

The  "Leaflet"  of  di- 
rections issued  by  the 
Lambert  Company  is  an 
excellent  guide  to  the 
operator  of  a  gas  or 
gasoline-engine,  and  gives 
special  directions  for  ob- 
serving the  internal  ac- 
tion of  the  engine  by  the 
sounds  to  the  ear. 

The  stationary  and 
marine  engines  of  the 
Union  Gas  Engine  Com- 
pany, San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  are  all  of  the  four- 
cycle type  and  adapted 
to  the  use  of  gas,  gaso- 
line, distillate  kerosene 
or  crude  oil,  as  required 
for  their  special  work. 

The  fuel,  gasoline  or 
oil,  is  drawn  from  a  float 
feed-chamber  meeting  the 
hot  air  from  the  exhaust- 
heater,  by  which  it  is 
made  a  perfect  mixture 
before  passing  the  inlet- 
valve.  Fig.  260  illus- 
trates their  latest  type 


FIG.  257. — The  electric  connection. 


FIG.  258. — Gas-regulator  and  gas-bag. 


298 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


FIG.  259. — Horizontal  engine,  for  gas,  gasoline,  or  kerosene  oil. 

of  vaporizer,  the  upper  section  of  which  contains  a  throttle-valve 

controlled  by  the  governor. 

Their  marine  engines  are  built  in  one,  two,  three,  and  four- 
cylinder  units  with  all 
the  latest  improvement 
in  the  running  gear  and 
regulating  appliances. 
Their  vertical  motors 
are  fitted  in  portable 
form  for  all  kinds  of 
agricultural  and  mining 
work.  Their  tunnel  lo- 
comotive is  a  model  of 
completeness. 

The  engines  of  the 
White-Blakeslee  Manu- 
facturing Company,  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  are  of 
the  horizontal  and  ver- 
FIG.  260. — Union  vaporizer.  tical  model  and  four- 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


299 


cycle  compression  type.  The  horizontal  engines  are  built  in  single- 
cylinder  units  of  eight  to  thirty-six  B.  H.  P.,  and  the  vertical  en- 
gines in  units  of  one  to  six  B.  H.  p.  Direct-tandem  compressed- 
air  cylinders  and  pumping  outfits  are  in  their  line.  In  these 
engines  the  gasoline-pump  throws  a  regulated  charge  of  fuel  into  a 
vaporizing  chamber  beneath  the  cylinder,  where  it  meets  the  in- 


• 


I.   ^ 


FIG.  261. — Blakeslee  vertical  engine. 

coming  air  by  the  suction  of  the  piston  producing  the  proper  propor- 
tion of  air  and  gasoline  mixture  as  regulated  by  the  gasoline  and 
air  valve.  The  governing  is  by  varying  the  charge  by  the  action 
of  a  throttle-valve  operated  directly  by  the  governor  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  vaporizer — above  which  is  placed  the  inlet-valve.  The 
exhaust-valve  is  in  a  chamber  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  cylinder 
and  operated  by  a  cross  lever  from  a  cam  on  the  side-shaft. 
Ignition  is  by  contact  break  spark. 


300 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  vertical  engine  receives  its  charge  from  a  constant-level 
reservoir  regulated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  horizontal  style. 
The  inlet  and  exhaust  valve  and  the  igniter  are  all  located  in  the 
head  of  the  cylinder.  Both  valves  and  the  igniter  are  operated 
by  a  push-rod  from  the  reducing  gear,  and  regulation  is  by  a  gov- 
ernor on  the  fly-wheel. 

ENGINES    OF   THE    HARTIG    STANDARD    GAS-ENGINE    COMPANY, 
NEWARK,    N.  J. 

The  motors  of  this  company,  both  horizontal  and  vertical,  are 
of  the  four-cycle  type  and  are  governed  by  a  pendulum  or  inertia- 
governor  operating  on  the  hit-and-miss  principle  on  the  exhaust- 


FIG.  262. — Hartig  pumping-engine. 

valve  by  holding  it  open,  which  prevents  a  charge.  The  hori- 
zontal engines  have  an  auxiliary  exhaust-port  uncovered  by  the 
extreme  forward  stroke  of  the  piston.  The  exhaust- valves  are  of 
steel  and  conical  seated.  The  admission-valves  are  of  the  self- 
acting  type,  double-conical  seated,  and  control  both  the  air  and 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


301 


gas   ports.      Engines    fitted    for  using    gas  are  usually  fired  by 
porcelain  hot-tubes;  but  nickel  tubes  may  be  used  if  required. 
The  hot-tubes  are  placed  horizontal  on  all  their  engines  and  so 


FIG.  263. — Hartig  vertical  pumping-engine. 

arranged  that  they  may  be  heated  to  the  igniting  temperature  at 
any  part,  to  control  the  time  of  firing. 

Gasoline-engines  are  usually  fitted  with  electric  ignition,  of  the 
make  and  break  type,  so  arranged  as  to  control  and  vary  the  time 
of  ignition  while  the  engine  is  running. 

Electric  ignition  may  be  fitted  to  either  gas  or  gasoline-engines, 


302 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


as  desired.     With  slight  alteration  of  the  sizes  of  ports  and  valves, 
these  engines  work  perfectly  with  acetylene  gas.      The  gasoline- 


FIG.  261. — The  K.  &  V.  horizontal  gasoline-engine. 

engines  have  a  pump-feed  from  a  tank  below  the  engine,  or  buried 
outside  of  a  building,  the  surplus  gasoline  draining  back  to  the 
tank.  The  vaporizer  is  of  the  constant-level  type  with  a  glass 

sight-feed  body,  showing 
clearly  to  the  eye  by  a 
glance  that  the  constant 
level  is  being  maintained. 
The  feed  is  by  suction  and 
controlled  by  a  needle- 
valve  with  graduated  disk. 
The  motors  of  the  Root 
and  Vandervoort  Engi- 
neering Company,  East 
Moline,  111.,  are  of  the 
horizontal  and  vertical 
four-cycle  type,  and  are  well  designed  for  all  kinds  of  power  ser- 
vice and  for  pumping  and  hoisting.  In  Fig.  264  we  illustrate  their 


FIG.  265. — Direct-connected  engine  and 
generator. 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


303 


horizontal  gasoline-engine,  showing  the  valve-gear  and  gasoline- 
pump  operated  by  a  side-shaft  driven  by  spiral  gears  from  the 
main  shaft,  at  half-speed  for  the  four-cycle  effect.  A  fly-ball  gov- 


EXHAUST  VALVE 


FIG.  266. — Section  of  R.  &  V.  vertical  engine. 

ernor  driven  from  the  side-shaft  controls  the  flow  of  gasoline  to 
the  atomizer  and  vaporizer,  so  that  the  engine  speed  is  governed 
by  the  varying  volume  of  fuel.  The  ignition  is  electric,  of  the 


304  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

hammer-spark  type,  operated  by  push-rod  from  a  crank-pin  at  the 
end  of  the  side-shaft,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

In  Fig.  265  we  illustrate  the  horizontal  engine,  direct  connected 
to  a  four-pole  generator  on  a  substantial  base  bolted  to  the  engine- 
base.  The  running  of  this  engine  of  eight,  fourteen,  and  eighteen 
horse-power  direct  connected  to  a  four  and  one-half,  eight  and 
one-half,  and  twelve-kilowatt  generator  of  110  to  120  volts  is  so 
steady  that  the  voltage  does  not  fluctuate  to  exceed  one  volt. 

The  vertical  engines  of  this  company  are  of  the  same  cycle  type 
as  before  described  but  the  arrangement  of  the  valve  and  pump- 
gear  are  made  to  meet  the  vertical  position  of  the  cylinder.  A 
pair  of  spur-gears  on  the  inside  of  the  crank-chamber  drives  a 
short  shaft  on  which  are  fixed  the  exhaust  and  pump  cams.  The 
exhaust  push-rod  also  carries  a  short  igniter-rod,  which  by  a 
double  motion  of  the  exhaust-rod  operates  the  hammer-stroke 
of  the  igniter. 

In  Fig.  266  is  illustrated  a  section  of  the  vertical  engine,  show- 
ing details  of  the  parts. 

The  pump,  operated  from  a  cam  on  the  small  shaft  pumps  an 
excess  of  gasoline  to  the  small  constant-level  reservoir  at  the  top 
of  the  cylinder,  and  overflows  to  the  main  reservoir  in  the  base 
of  the  engine,  which  holds  a  day's  supply.  By  this  means  a  con- 
stant level  of  gasoline  is  maintained  at  the  mixer,  assuring  a  uniform 
charge.  The  governor  of  the  vertical  engine  is  of  the  centrifugal 
type,  with  a  single  weight  and  arm,  adjusted  by  a  spring,  making 
a  hit-or-miss  charge  by  holding  the  exhaust  open. 

MARINE  AND   STATIONARY   ENGINES  OF  THE   HUBBARD   MOTOR  COM- 


We  illustrate  in  Fig.  267  a  section  of  the  two-cycle  vertical 
motor  of  this  company;  its  characteristics  of  construction  are  similar 
to  the  general  type  of  this  class  of  motors.  Its  movement  is  simple, 
complete,  with  the  ignition  device  driven  by  a  single  push-rod  con- 
nected to  a  cam-rod  and  which  also  carries  the  plunger  of  the 
circulating-pump. 

In  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  cut  is  shown  the  quick-acting 
spark-break  device. 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


305 


The  action  of  the  spark  is  very  simple  and  easily  understood. 
The  slide  S,  which  carries  both  the  plunger  of  the  pump  P  and  the 
spark-trigger  T,  is  moved  by  an  eccentric  on  the  fly-wheel,  so  that 
it  is  at  the  top  of  its  stroke  simultaneously  with  the  piston.  When 
it  nears  the  top,  T  strikes  plunger  H  and  lifts  it  against  spring  U, 


FIG.  267. — Section  of  the  Hubbard  motor. 

allowing  the  inside  spark-lever  R  and  outside  spark-lever  K,  which 
are  firmly  pinned  together,  to  be  pressed  upward  by  spring  U  till 
R  touches  F.  Then  T  strikes  screw  N,  causing  H  to  be  released 
and  strike  K  sharply,  thus  snapping  R  quickly  away  from  F  and 
making  a  bright  spark.  In  order  to  advance  the  spark,  N 
screwed  down,  and  to  retard  it,  screwed  up. 


is 


306 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


During  the  up-stroke  of  the  piston  a  mixture  of  air  and  gaso- 
line is  drawn  from  the  mixing-valve  through  the  opening  A  into 
the  tightly  enclosed  crank-chamber.  At  the  beginning  of  the  down- 
stroke  the  mixing-valve  is  automatically  closed,  and  when  the 
piston  passes  the  inlet-port  D  the  mixture  in  the  crank-chamber 
is  sufficiently  compressed  so  that  it  rushes  through  port  D  into  the 


FIG.  268. — Vertical  two-cycle  motor. 

cylinder,  where  it  is  deflected  upward  by  the  baffle-plate  B,  and 
forces  out  any  remaining  burnt  gases  through  the  exhaust-port 
E.  When  the  piston  goes  up  again  the  charge  is  compressed  into 
the  space  above  the  dotted  outline  of  the  top  of  the  piston  and 
fired  by  a  spark  between  firing-pin  F  and  inside  spark-lever  R. 
This  makes  a  pressure  of  about  300  pounds  per  square  inch,  which 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS  307 

drives  the  piston  down  on  its  power  stroke,  at  the  end  of  which 
the  charge  is  exhausted  through  E  when  that  port  is  uncovered 
by  the  piston. 

The  single  and  double  cylinder  marine  motors  are  of  the  two- 
cycle  type,  with  the  heads  and  cylinders  cast  in  one  piece  and 
water- jacketed.  The  four-cylinder  motors  are  of  the  four-cycle 
type,  with  their  heads  and  cylinders  cast  in  single  pieces  and  water- 
jacketed.  The  exhaust- valves  are  operated  directly  from  a  cam- 
shaft in  front  of  the  crank-case,  and  the  ignition-gear  by  a  small 
shaft  at  the  head  of  the  cylinders,  driven  by  an  upright  shaft  and 
bevel  gears  from  the  main  cam-shaft. 


FIG.  269. — Horizontal  gas-engine. 

In  the  following  figures  we  illustrate  the  various  models  of 
gas,  gasoline,  kerosene,  crude-oil,  and  suction  gas-engines  of  Fair- 
banks, Morse  and  Company,  Chicago,  111.  All  the  engines  of 
this  company  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type.  The  hori- 
zontal engines  in  cylinder  units  from  five  to  sixty  horse-power,  and 
the  vertical  engines  in  cylinder  units  from  two  to  twelve  horse-power. 
The  multicylinder  engines  are  built  in  sizes  from  20  to  150  horse- 
power. Fig.  269  shows  the  valve  side  of  a  gas-engine  in  which 
the  fuel  is  regulated  by  an  indexed  valve  and  the  speed  governed 
by  holding  the  exhaust  open  by  the  action  of  the  governor  on  the 
fly-wheel.  The  gasoline-engine  is  of  the  same  model,  with  an 


308 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


automatic-pump  supply  of  the  gasoline-fuel  to  a  constant-level 
reservoir  and  overflow  to  the  tank. 


FIG.  2      — Plan  of  horizontal  engine. 

In  Fig.  270  is  shown  a  plan  of  the  gasoline-engine  with  the 
position  of  the  governor,  reducing-gear,  exhaust  push-rod  with 

the  cam-lever  for  regulat- 
ing, by  holding  open  the 
exhaust-valve.  The  start- 
ing air-pump  is  shown  at 
the  side  of  the  engine. 

In  Fig.  271  is  shown  the 
gasoline-engine  starting- 
^  pump  and  detonator,  by 
which  a  charge  is  forced 
into  the  cylinder  to  be  fired 
by  the  detonator  or  by 
the  electric  igniter.  By 
this  means  the  engine  will 
start  under  a  half-load 
without  jerk  or  jar. 

The   engines,  operated 
with  kerosene  or  crude  oil, 
are  fitted  with  a  generator 
FIG.  271.— The  starting  pump.  attached    directly    to    the 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


309 


exhaust-outlet  of  the  engine.  The  oil  is  supplied  to  the  top  of 
the  generator  and  is  converted  into  a  gaseous  vapor  which  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  with 
the  air  as  an  explosive  mixt- 
ure. The  generator  is  pro- 
vided with  a  torch-lamp  for 
generating  vapor  gas  for 
starting  the  engine. 

In  Fig.  273  is  illustrated 
a  larger  generator  arranged 
for  converting  the  heavy 
crude  oils  into  a  suitable 
vapor  for  explosive  power. 
It  is  constructed  on  the  same 
lines  as  the  generator  for  FIG.  272.-Kerosene-oil  generator. 

kerosene  and  with  an  enlarged  heating  surface  necessary  for  con- 
verting the  heavy  crude  oil. 

The  oil-feed  device  is  shown  on  top  of  the  generator,  with  its 
pipe  connections.  A  torch-lamp  is  also  used  for  starting  the 
engine.  A  pump  supplies  the  oil-feed  device  with  a  return  of  the 

overflow  to   the  tank. 

The  generator  consists  of 
an  outer  shell  surrounding 
the  heating  passage,  which 
is  so  constructed  that  the 
exhaust  from  the  engine 
passes  through  it.  The  heat 
admitted  to  this  chamber  is 
regulated  by  a  by-pass  cham- 
ber, directing  some  of  the 
heat  straight  to  the  atmos- 
phere before  it  enters  the 
heat  chamber. 

Crude  oil  or  kerosene  is 

FIG.  273. — Crude-oil  generator.  .  . 

admitted  within   the   outer 

chamber  at  the  top.     The  device  used  for  admitting  the  fuel  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Standard  Gasoline-Engine. 

As  the  engine  makes  the  suction  or  inhalation  stroke,  there  is 


310 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


a  vacuum  set  up  in  the  generator.     This  vacuum  is  placed  so  as  to 
draw  the  fuel  through  the  nozzle  from  which  it  discharges  on  the 


FIG.  274. — Suction  gas-plant. 

heating  surface  of  the  internal  heater,  and  the  result  is  gasification 

of  the  oil  or  kerosene.     This  gas,  of  course,  is  drawn  into  the  engine 

at  the  next  suction  stroke. 

The  feed-device  being  automatic,  also  properly  measures  the 

quantity  of  fuel  to  be  used  in  the  next  charge,  and  with  the  hit-or- 

miss  governor  the  exhaust  is  held 
open  and  no  suction  occurs;  con- 


FIG.  275.— Vertical  engine. 


FIG.  276. — Vertical  engine  direct  connected  to 
dynamo. 


sequently  gas  is  not  drawn  from  the  generator  until  speed  of  engine 
slackens,  and  the  governor  releases  the  exhaust,  which  is   then 


GAS    AND    GASOLINE-MOTORS 


311 


closed.  With  the  volume-governor  the  vacuum  is  light  or  heavy 
in  the  generator,  according  to  how  the  fuel  is  proportioned. 

The  crude-oil  gen- 
erator is  considerably 
taller  or  larger  than 
that  used  for  kerosene, 
the  exhaust  entering 
at  bottom  and  con- 
tinuing through  the 
spiral  to  discharge  at 
top.  Fuel  is  admitted 
at  top  end  of  the  spi- 
ral, travelling  the  entire 
length  while  its  vapor 

is    being    generated  FIG.  277. — loO-horse-power  vertical  three-cylinder 

Fig.  274   illustrates 

the  gas-engine  connected  to  a  suction  gas-producer,  which  consists 
of  a  generator  in  which  the  gas  is  made,  a  small  steam-generator 
in  the  hot  chamber  of  the  gas-generator  for  supplying  moisture 
to  the  air  entering  the  gas-generator,  a  scrubber  through  which 
the  gases  pass  for  purification,  and  a  tank  for  a  surplus  supply  to 
meet  the  sudden  draughts  of  the  engine  during  the  charging 
strokes.  A  further  description  of  the  details  of  gas-producers 
is  given  in  Chapter  XXIV. 

Fig.  275  shows  the  single-cylinder  vertical  model,  the  details 

of  construction  following  the 
same  general  lines  as  their  hori- 
zontal four-cycle  type.  They 
are  built  in  two,  three,  four, 
six,  nine,  and  twelve  horse- 
power, and  are  supplied  with 
generators  for  kerosene  when 
required;  otherwise  gas  or  gaso- 
line is  the  usual  fuel. 

Fig.  276  shows  their  two- 
cylinder  vertical  engine,  direct  connected  to  dynamo  of  multipolar 
type.  All  their  multicylinder  engines  are  supplied  with  direct- 
connected  multipolar  dynamos  for  electric  light  or  power  work. 


FIG.  278. — Multicylinder  marine 
engine. 


312 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Fig.  277  illustrates  their  vertical  multicylinder  150-horse- 
power  engine,  showing  arrangement  with  out-board  bearing  and 
belt  pulley. 

In  Fig.  278  is  illustrated  their  multicylinder  marine  engine 
with  reversing  gear.  This  type  of  marine  motor  is  made  in 
units  of  one,  two,  three,  and  four  cylinders,  from  2  to  100  horse- 
power. The  simplex  or  single-cylinder  engine  is  of  the  two-cycle 

type.     All  others  are  four 
cycle. 

Fig.  279  shows  their 
combined  engine  and  air 
compressor,  with  the 
power  and  air  cylinders 
arranged  tandem  or  di- 
rect connected,  and  for 
the  larger  sized  in  cross- 
connected  model.  These 
compressors  are  furnish- 
ed with  all  the  devices 
necessary  for  regulating 


FIG.  279. — Motor  air-compressor. 


the  motor-speed  and  compressed-air  pressure. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

MARINE    MOTORS 

THE  explosive  motor  has  of  late  acquired  a  success  in  its  appli- 
cation for  marine  power,  in  which  its  use  has  developed  a  marvel- 
lous speed  in  small  craft  that  has  outstripped  anything  hereto- 
fore accomplished  by  steam-power. 

Racing  launches  and  yachts  are  nearing  the  40-mile  mark, 
and  their  speed  limit  may  be  far  beyond  our  earlier  dreams;  all 
due  to  the  new  element  of  power.  For  the  accomplishment  of 
this  ideal  purpose  a  marine  motor  must  be  as  compact  and  light  in 
weight  (compatible  with  strength)  as  possible,  and  should  be  so 
designed  that  any  part  can  be  adjusted,  taken  out,  or  renewed 
without  disturbing  anything  else,  for  the  quarters  in  which 
engines  of  this  type  are  placed  are  oftentimes  cramped  and  dark, 
and  accessibility,  after  reliability,  is  a  prime  necessity.  When 
these  points  are  given  proper  consideration  in  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  marine  motors,  far  greater  success  and  pleasure  will 
attend  their  use  than  has  been  experienced  in  the  past. 

Yet  the  era  of  advancement  during  the  past  decade  has  had 
its  salient  points  of  interest  and  pleasure  in  sailing  speed,  and  the 
present  designs  of  marine  motors  are  fast  approaching  the  perfec^ 
tion  of  action  and  convenience  of  management  so  desirable  in  the 
motor  service  for  pleasure  craft. 


MARINE    ENGINES    AND    THEIR    WORK 

The  oft-repeated  inquiry  as  to  the  proper  size  of  motor  and 
wheel  for  certain-sized  boats  has  induced  the  author  to  gather,  in 
the  following  table,  the  leading  points  for  moderate-speed  boats, 
as  derived  from  a  leading  yacht  and  launch  motor-boat  concern. 
The  conditions  are  much  too  high  for  auxiliary  power  for  sailing 
craft,  and  too  low  for  racing  craft,  which  in  all  cases  requires  special 

313 


314 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


APPROXIMATE    SIZES    OF   ENGINES,   PROPELLERS,    AND    BOATS. 


Size. 

Cylinder. 

Revo- 
lutions. 

Propeller- 
Wheel. 

Launch  or  Boat. 

Diam. 

Stroke. 

Diam.      Pitch. 

I 

Length. 

Beam. 

3  H.  P.  Single-cylinder  
4                                    "     
5                                  "     
6                    "             "     
6             Two-cylinder   

5     in 

5|  in 
5|  in 
6*  in 
5      in 
5i   in 
6i    in 
7J   in 
9     in 
6i   in 
5i   in 
6i   in 
7i  in 
9     in 

7  in. 
7  in. 
9  in. 
9  in. 
7  in. 
7  in. 
9  in. 
11  in. 
13  in. 
8  in. 
7  in. 
9  in. 
11  in. 
13  in. 

480 
450 
425 
400 
475 
400 
410 
325 
300 
380 
375 
360 
330 
300 

16  in. 
18  in. 
20  in. 
21  in. 
18  in. 
23  in. 
26  in. 
30  in. 
34  in. 
28  in. 
28  in. 
30  in. 
36  in. 
40  in. 

24  in. 
26  in. 
28  in. 
28  in. 
26  in. 
32  in. 
34  in. 
38  in. 
48  in. 
38  in. 
35  in. 
40  in. 
48  in. 
54  in. 

18  ft. 
25ft. 
28  ft. 
30  ft. 
30  ft. 
32ft. 
35  ft. 
40ft. 
45  ft. 
40ft. 
40  ft. 
42  ft. 
48ft. 
50ft. 

5  ft. 
6  ft. 
6i  ft. 
7  ft. 
7  ft. 
7|  ft. 
8  ft. 
8i  ft. 
9  ft. 
8i  ft. 
8i  ft. 
8i  ft. 
9i  ft. 
10  ft. 

10                  "             '        
16                  "            '        

25                  "             '        
16            Three-cylinder  

16            Four-cylinder  
20                "             '        

32                "            '        
50                             '        

design  of  boat  lines  and  allotment  of  power  as  well  as  of  size  and 
pitch  of  screw.  The  approximate  speed  of  launches  and  larger 
boats  as  scheduled  in  the  above  table  may  be  obtained  by  deduct- 
ing from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  product  of  the  revolutions  per 
minute  and  the  pitch  of  the  wheel  in  feet  and  decimals  which  gives 
the  speed  in  feet  per  minute.  Multiply  this  product  by  60  and 

divide  by  5280  for  the  miles  per  hour,  or 
divide  the  first  product  by  88,  which  is 
-f|-,  a  shorter  way. 

The  motors  of  the  Bridgeport  Motor 
Company,  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  are  of  the 
marine  and  stationary  two-cycle  type  and 
are  of  compact  and  simple  design.  The 
ignition  by  hammer  break-spark  and  the 
circulating-pump  are  both  operated  by  the 
pump-rod  from  a  cam  on  the  motor-shaft, 
the  igniter  being"  a  separate  rod  lifted  by 
a  trip-block  on  the  pump-rod  and  let  go  by  contact  with  an  ad- 
justing timing-screw.  The  gasoline  is  fed  to  the  crank-chamber 
by  an  atomizing  carbureter  with  an  adjusting  needle-valve  opening 
on  the  seat  of  the  inlet  air-valve  with  an  adjusting  screw  to  regulate 
its  lift.  The  feed  to  the  cylinder  is  regulated  by  a  revolving 
perforated  damper  as  shown  in  the  drawings  (Figs.  281  and  282), 
which  are  to  a  scale  for  small-sized  motors. 


FIG.  280.— Atomizer. 


315 


316 


MARINE  MOTORS 


317 


By  this  double  adjustment  the  charge-mixture  is  regulated  in 
its  proportions  in  the  crank-case,  and  the  quantity  of  each  charge 
is  also  regulated  for  the  speed  of  the  motor. 

SOLID   AND   REVERSING   PROPELLERS 

The  Bridgeport  motor  runs  equally  well  in  either  direction,  dis- 
pensing with  th6  necessity  for  a  reverse  clutch  or  reversing  pro- 
peller, except  in  the  larger  sizes.  With  a  solid  propeller-wheel,  in 
any  size  up  to  six  and  one-half  horse-power,  if  it  is  desired  to  re- 
verse, the  switch  is  thrown  off  as  in  stopping  engine,  and  when 
the  engine  fly-wheel  is  near  to  last  revolution  and  nearly  on  centre, 
switched  on  again,  and  engine  is  thus  reversed  without  stopping. 

SPECIFICATIONS  OF  BRIDGEPORT  MARINE  GASOLINE-ENGINES. 


Engines 

Cylinders,  number 

Bore,  inches 

Stroke,  inches 

Revolutions  per  minute. . . 
Diameter    balance-wheel, 

inches 

Diameter     engine  -  shaft, 

inches 

Size  of  base,  inches 

Height    of    engine    above 

shaft  line,  inches 

Weight,  pounds 

Diameter  propeller-shaft, 

inches 

Diameter  propeller-wheel, 

inches. . . 


UH.P. 


ill 
I 
12 


2iH.P. 
1 

3! 

500 
13 

8x12 

14 
170 

f 
14-16 


3JH.P. 

4i 
5 
475 

15 

9xl3i 

164 

210 

1 

15-18 


5JH.P. 
ft 

si 

450 
17 

12xl6i 


415 

u 

16-20 


6JH.P. 
51 


13x18 


18-22 


8H.P. 


6J 
400 


13x418 

23f 
575 

U 
20-24 


12H.P, 
2 


400 
22 

2 
19ix26 

24 
1,000 

1* 

22-26 


20  H.  P. 
3 


400 
22 

2 
19ix38 

24 
1,300 

11 

24-26 


The  above  dimensions  are  given  for  the  study  of  all  desiring 
to  fit  up  a  launch.  The  following  are  the  boat  dimensions  suit- 
able for  the  horse-powers  in  the  above  table  of  motor  dimensions. 


Dimensions  of  Stock  Sizes. 

Standard  Models. 

Comfort 
Models. 

18ft. 
5ft. 
25  in. 
20  in. 
*i 

22  ft. 
6ft. 
27  in. 
22  in. 
31 

25  ft. 
7ft. 
30  in. 
27  in. 
61 

28  ft. 
7ft. 
30  in. 
27  in. 
61 

30  ft. 
7ft. 
36  in. 
30  in. 
61 

17ft. 
7ft. 
24  in. 
20  in. 
31 

22  ft. 
7ft. 
27  in. 
22  in. 
61 

Beam  extreme           

Depth  least                                      .... 

Draught  

GASOLINE     MARINE     MOTORS     OF     THE     YACHT,     GAS-ENGINE,     AND 
LAUNCH     COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

The  motors  of  this  company  are  of  the  four-cycle  type  in  units 
of  two  and  four  cylinders.  The  bed-plate  and  housings  are  made 
of  an  alloy  of  alumina  and  magnesium,  called  by  the  company 


318 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


"  alumagnia,"  which  has  a  tensile  strength  equal  to  wrought  iron  and 
lighter  than  aluminum.  This,  with  a  sheet-metal  water-jacket, 

brings  the  weight  of  a 
two  and  one-half  horse- 
power "Baby  Crown" 
marine  motor  at  120 
pounds. 

The  cylinders  are  set 
on  stanchions,  which 
leaves  an  open  space 
for  observation  and  ad- 
justment of  the  running 
parts.  The  carbureter 
is  of  the  float-feed  type 
with  a  separate  pipe 
to  each  cylinder.  Igni- 
tion is  jump-spark,  with 
Herz  timer  and  soot- 
proof  plugs. 

The    company    also 

FIG.  283.— "  Baby  Crown,"  2$  horse  power.  ,.,,  «  c 

builds   a   fine    class    of 

launches,  racing  boats,  and  cruisers,  with  or  without  auxiliary 
sails.  In  Fig.  284  we  illustrate  their  pleasure  launch  with  stanch- 
ions and  awnings. 


FIG.  284.— The  pleasure  launch. 
Debutante,"  35  feet  by  6  feet  9  inches,  16  horse-power,  and  speed  of  12  miles  per  hour. 


MARINE  MOTORS 


319 


MARINE  MOTORS  AND  LAUNCHES  OF  E.  H.  GODSHALK  AND 
COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  286  a  light-weight,  high-speed  marine 
motor  of  the  two-cycle  type,  model  B,  of  the  above  company,  built 
in  units  of  two  and  four  cylin- 
ders. Also  in  double  units  with 
the  reversing-gear  between  the 
units,  an  innovation  upon  ordi- 
nary practice  with  many  con- 
veniences in  operating  the  motor. 
As  the  two-cycle  engine  will  run 
in  either  direction  by  simply 
changing  the  lead  of  the  spark, 
the  forward  engine  may  be  run 
in  one  direction,  and  the  after 
engine  in  the  other;  or  the  for- 
ward engine  may  be  used  to 
start  the  after  engine  in  the  re- 
verse direction,  and  the  for- 
ward engine  then  cut  out.  By 
disconnecting  the  two  engines 
the  forward  engine  may  be  start- 
ed by  hand  and  then  used  to 
start  the  after  engine  by  oper- 
ating the  clutch,  thus  avoiding 
the  use  of  a  starting  device. 

The  principal  features  of  this 
engine  are  that  the  crank-cases 
are  of  nickel  aluminum,  so  treat- 
ed as  to  be  unaffected  by  the 
action  of  salt  water,  and  the 
cylinders  are  of  cast  steel.  The 
water-jackets  are  separate  from 
the  cylinders  and  are  made  of 
seamless  drawn-steel  shells.  The 
vaporizer  is  of  the  compensating 
type,  needing  no  adjustment  for 
changes  in  temperature,  or  in  the 


320' 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


speed  of  the  engine.  The  engine  has  absolutely  no  valves,  as  it  is 
of  the  three-port  type,  the  inlets  to  the  crank-cases  being  opened  and 
closed  by  the  piston.  This  form  is  found  better  adapted  to  high 
speeds  than  a  check-valve.  Ignition  is  of  the  jump-spark  type, 
the  timer  being  driven  by  a  silent  chain  and  the  timer-shaft  sup- 
ported on  a  bracket  at  about  one-half  the  height  of  the  engine. 
The  spark-plugs  are  entirely  enclosed  in  a  moisture-proof  shield. 

The  engine  is  twenty- 
one  inches  high  from 
the  centre  of  the  shaft 
to  the  top  of  the  spark- 
plug shield,  and  the 
forward  engine  is  forty- 
two  inches  long  from 
the  centre  of  the  coup- 
ling to  the  outside  of 
the  fly-wheel.  The  ap- 
proximate weight  of  the 
two  engines  combined, 
exclusive  of  the  reverse 
gear,  is  600  pounds,  and 
at  950  revolutions  per 
minute,  which  is  the 
normal  speed  of  the 
engine,  it  will  develop 
between  60  and  65  brake  horse-power. 

The  manufacturers  build  a  number  of  different  sizes  on  this 
same  general  design.  The  smallest  of  these  is  3|-inch  bore  by  4- 
inch  stroke,  developing  4J  horse-power  per  cylinder.  A  second 
size  is  4J-mch  bore  by  5-inch  stroke,  developing  1\  horse-power  per 
cylinder.  The  largest  size  is  5|-inch  bore  by  6-inch  stroke,  de- 
veloping 11  horse-power  per  cylinder.  The  normal  speed  at  which 
these  three  sizes  is  rated,  is  950,  900,  and  850,  respectively. 

Marine  motors  of  the  J.  J.  Parker  Company,  Fulton,  N.  Y.,  are 
of  the  two-cycle  type,  of  light  yet  strong  construction,  suitable  for 
the  lightest  rowboats;  a  simple  design,  taking  its  fuel-mixture  from 
the  crank-chamber  with  a  regulating-valve  in  the  passage.  A 
pump  driven  by  a  cam  on  the  main  shaft  supplies  water  to  the 


FIG.  286.— Two-cylinder,  4£x5,  15  horse-power, 
900  revolutions  per  minute. 


MARINE   MOTORS 


321 


FIG.  287. — Four-cylinder,  4|x5,  30  horse-power,  900  revolutions  per  minute; 
weight,  400  pounds.     E.  H.  Godshalk  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

cylinder-jackets.  The  propeller  is  of  the  reversing  type,  as  shown 
in  the  cut.  The  motors  are  built  in  units  of  one,  two,  and  three 
cylinders,  from  one  and  one-half  to  fifteen  horse-power.  The  one- 
and-one-half-horse-power  motor  is  suited  for  sixteen  and  eighteen 


FIG.  288. — Light-weight  marine  motor.     J.  J.  Parker  Co.,  FuJton.  N.  Y. 


322  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

foot  boats;  three  horse-power,  for  twenty-foot  boats;  five  horse- 
power, for  twenty-five-foot  boats,  and  the  ten-horse-power,  double- 
cylinder,  for  boats  of  twenty-eight  to  thirty-five  feet,  and  the 
fifteen-horse-power  three-cylinder  motors  for  boats  from  forty  to 
fifty  feet  in  length. 

MARINE     MOTORS     OF    THE     STANDARD    MOTOR     CONSTRUCTION 
COMPANY,    JERSEY    CITY,    N.    J. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  289  the  six-cylinder  Standard  marine 
motor  of  this  company.  The  cylinders  are  8  inches  in  diameter, 
10-inch  stroke,  and  the  motor  runs  600  revolutions  per  minute, 
driving  a  propeller  36  inches  in  diameter.  The  "  Standard  "  is  of 


FIG.  289. — The  "  Standard"  100  horse-power  motor. 

the  four-cycle  type  and  reversed  by  shifting  the  valve  motion; 
receives  the  explosive  fuel  through  a  single  atomizing  vaporizer, 
with  a  con  trolling- valve  and  index. 

The  motor  is  started  by  compressed  air,  and,  having  no  dead 
centres,  instantly  starts  on  opening  the  compressed-air  valve. 
A  small  air-pump  keeps  an  air-tank  at  sufficient  pressure  for  start- 
ing several  times  without  continuous  running. 

The  " Standard"  racing  launch,  with  the  above  motor,  has  a 
speed  capacity  up  to  thirty  miles  per  hour. 


MARINE  MOTORS 


323 


ENGINES    AND    TRAWL    BOATS    OF    THE    MIANUS    MOTOR    WORKS 
MIANUS,    CONN. 

The  above  works  are  largely  engaged  in  fitting  auxiliary 
motors  to  yachts,  which  are  a  great  comfort  to  yachtsmen  when  the 
wind  fails. 

Their  trawl-boat  motors,  not  only  drive  the  boat,  but  also 
hoist  the  trawls  by  a  double-drum  chain-hoist  operated  as  re- 


FIG.  290. — Two-cycle  marine  motor. 

quired  by  a  clutch  and  lever.  Light-draught  twin-screw  boats  are 
a  great  convenience  in  shallow-water  sporting,  are  one  of  the 
specialties  of  these  works.  All  of  their  motors  are  of  the  two- 
cycle  type,  with  a  snap  break-spark  with  a  regulating  adjustment 
for  timing  the  spark,  under  control  by  a  small  hand-lever;  alto- 
gether one  of  the  most  simple  and  compact  designs  of  this  type 
of  motor.  A  water-circulating  pump  is  attached  to  the  lower  end 
of  the  igniter  push-rod  and  operated  by  the  same  cam  that  operates 
the  igniter. 


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MARINE  MOTORS 


325 


MARINE    MOTORS   OF    HALL    BROTHERS    GAS-ENGINE    WORKS, 
PHILADELPHIA,    PA. 

The  aim  in  the  design  of  these  motors  is  to  provide  a  motive 
power  that  will  maintain  its  wearing  properties,  and  stand  the  abuse 


FIG.  292. — Si-horse-power  2-cycle 
motor.     Exhaust  side. 


FIG.  293. — 31-horse-power  2-cycle 
motor.    Water  side. 


FIG.  294. — 5-horse-power  4-cycie 
motor.    Valve  side. 


FIG.  295. — 5-horse-power  4-cycle 
motor.    Water  side. 


that  this  class  of  motors  is  subjected  to  in  the  hands  of  unskilled 
operators. 

These  motors  are  built  on  simple,  compact,  and  durable  lines, 
and  with  lightness  compatible  with  wear  and  smooth  running. 


326 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

Float-feed  carbureter,  regu- 


Solid-head  cylinders,  steel  pistons, 
lation  by  throttle  and  spark-timer. 

All  the  motors  of  this  company  have  a  great  range  of  speed. 

In  Fig.  296  is  illustrated  the  single-cylinder  marine  motor  of 
the  two-cycle  type.  On  the  side  of  the  crank-case  is  shown  the 
carbureter  and  the  air-inlet  device,  also  the  inverted  water-pump 
with  a  direct-drive  from  a  cam  on  the  shaft.  The  details  of  the 


FIG.  296. — Lozier  two-cycle  marine  motor. 

action  of  these  motors  of  the  Losier  Motor  Company,  Plattsburg, 
N.  Y.,  are  illustrated  and  described  in  Chapter  XVI. 

The  ignition  is  by  the  hammer-break  system,  with  both  elec- 
trodes in  a  single,  easily  removed  plug,  which  also  has  the  battery- 
switch  attached.  These  motors  are  built  in  sizes  of  three,  five,  and 
seven  and  one-half  horse-power,  and  of  models  designated  as  A, 
B,  and  C  type,  which  relates  principally  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  ignition  and  controlling  parts.  The  carbureter  is  of  the  float- 
feed  type,  with  a  governor  to  control  the  gasoline-charge. 


MARINE   MOTORS 


327 


The  larger  Lozier  marine  motors  are  of  the  four-cycle  type, 
with  four  cylinders,  and  are  a  model  of  compactness  and  lightness. 
The  twenty-five-horse-power  motor,  with  the  bed-plate,  fly-wheel, 
and  reversing-gear  weighs  850  pounds,  or  only  thirty-four  pounds 
per  horse-power. 

In  the  four-cycle  type  of  the  Lozier  motors  the  admission- 
valves,  as  well  as  the  exhaust-valves,  are  mechanically  actuated, 
and  the  principal  governor,  of  the  ball  type,  operating  on  the 


FIG.  297. — Four-cycle  auto-marine  motor,  four-cylinder,  25  horse-power. 

admission-valves  throttles  the  gas  as  it  enters  the  firing-chamber. 
This  governor  automatically  responds  to  any  change  in  the  load, 
and  is  a  feature  which  cannot  be  applied  to  a  motor,  the  admission- 
valves  of  which  are  operated  by  suction.  A  valuable  point  to  be 
noticed  in  connection  with  this  governor  is  the  fact  that  the  speed 
may  be  reduced,  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
gasoline  consumed. 

The  time  of  ignition  may  be  changed  by  means  of  the  timing- 
lever,  which  enables  the  speed  of  the  motor  to  be  controlled  at  the 
will  of  the  operator,  making  a  great  range  of  speed  possible. 


328 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


FIG.  298. — Four-cycle  auto-marine  motor,  four-cylinder,  40  horse-power. 

The  admission  and  exhaust-valves  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
motor,  giving  it  a  well-balanced  appearance.  The  valves,  being 
mechanically  lifted,  are  positive  in  action,  and  there  can  be  no 
sticking  or  fouling,  as  is  liable  to  be  the  case  where  valves  are 


FIG.  299. — Cushman  marine  motor  and  equipment. 


MARINE  MOTORS 


329 


FIG.  300. — Two-cylinder  high-speed  automobile  motor. 

operated  by  suction.  By  unscrewing  the  covers,  which  are  set  in 
the  cylinder-heads  directly  over  the  valves,  they  may  be  easily 
removed  and  examined.  The  valves  are  of  nickel-steel  and  not 
easily  affected  by  the  intense  heat,  thus  removing  one  of  the 
prevalent  sources  of  trouble  with  four-cycle  motors. 


FIG.  301. — Section  of  motor,  wiring,  and  muffler. 


330 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  exhaust-valves  may  be  lifted  by  means  of  a  single  hand- 
lever,  which  relieves  the  compression  and  allows  the  fly-wheel  to 
be  turned  in  starting  with  very  little  exertion.  A  safety  locking- 
device  makes  it  impossible  for  the  operator  to  start  the  motor 
without  setting  the  timing-lever  at  "safety." 

The  igniter  mechanism  is  of  the  make-and-break  type.  The 
firing-plug  for  each  cylinder  contains  both  the  firing-pin  and 


FIG.  302. — The  carbureter. 

A.  Cover  of  mixing-chamber.  B.  Gas-outlet. 
C.  Throttle-valve.  D.  Adjustable-disk. 
E.  Nozzle.  F.  Throttle-lever  which  con- 
trols speed.  G.  Needle-valve.  Controls 
proportions  of  mixture.  Easily  remov 
able  if  nozzle  becomes  clogged.  H.  Float- 
chamber.  I.  Set-screw  to  hold  disk  in 
position.  J.  Disk.  K.  Throttle  with  disk 
removed.  L.  Pipe  which  carries  gasoline 
from  float-chamber  to  nozzle.  M.  Float- 
valve.  N.  Feed-pipe.  O.  Float-cham- 
ber. P.  Drain-cock.  Q.  Float-chamber 


rocker-arm,  and  occupies  a  central  position  in  the  cylinder  over 
the  firing-chamber. 

In  Fig.  299  we  illustrate  the  high-speed  marine  motors  of  the 
Cushman  Motor  Company,  Lincoln,  Neb.  In  the  design  of  these 
motors,  simplicity  in  the  arrangement  of  all  their  parts  has  been 
followed,  with  the  result  that  a  light-weight,  high-speed  motor, 
suitable  for  any  service  of  the  pleasure  or  racing  boat,  has  been 
attained.  Their  product  is  in  one  and  two  cylinder  motors  of 
two,  four,  seven,  eight,  and  fourteen  horse-power,  and  stationary 
motors  of  three  and  six  horse-power.  Fig.  300  represents  their 


MARINE  MOTORS  331 

two-cylinder  automobile  motors  of  eight  and  fourteen  horse-power. 
In  Fig.  301  are  shown  some  peculiar  details  of  construction  worthy 
of  note.  The  atomizing-carbureter  discharges  its  gasoline  and  air- 
mixture  into  an  annular  chamber  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder, 
where  it  is  perfectly  vaporized,  and  enters  the  cylinder  on  the 
opposite  side  through  pressure  from  the  crank-chamber  and  ports 
in  both  cylinder  and  piston,  opened  at  the  charging  end  of  the 
stroke. 

The  Cushman  igniter  is  so  constructed  as  to  form  a  make-and- 
break  for  either  non-vibrator  or  vibrator  coils.  It  is  placed  on  the 
main  boxing  of  the  engine  and  revolves  on  the  steel  ball-bearing  J 
around  a  cam  H  placed  on  the  shaft  G,  which  changes  the  posi- 


FIG.  303.— The  Cushman  igniter. 

tion  of  the  spark,  and  is  usually  termed  a  spark-shifter.  The  cam 
employed  for  this  purpose  is  a  hardened-steel  roller  on  a  steel 
pin  which  revolves  with  the  shaft.  This  roller  comes  against  a 
spring  F  carrying  one  of  the  contact-points.  The  other  contact- 
point  is  fastened  to  an  insulated  screw,  the  insulation  being  of 
hard  fibre  held  in  place  by  the  igniter-frame. 

The  igniter  may  be  moved  to  any  desired  point  while  the 
engine  is  running,  and  remain  in  that  position  until  moved  again, 
being  held  by  a  rack-and-spring  plunger.  C,  B  and  E,  D  are  the 
wires  and  posts  forming  the  circuit. 

In  Figs.  304  and  305  we  illustrate  the  details  of  the  marine 
gasoline-engines  of  the  Smalley  Motor  Company,  Bay  City,  Mich. 


332 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  method  of  admitting  the  charge  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
through  a  by-pass  from  a  port  in  the  piston  is  a  distinct  feature 
of  the  Smalley  motors,  and  a  valuable  one  in  defining  the  boundary 
of  the  new  charge  and  the  exhaust  of  the  last  explosion. 


FIG.  304. — Section  showing  charging  by-pass. 

When  the  piston  moves  upward  a  charge  of  vaporized  gasoline 
is  drawn  through  the  vaporizer-inlet  B  into  the  crank-chamber  C. 
When  the  piston  moves  downward  this  vapor  is  compressed  in  the 


MARINE  MOTORS 


333 


crank-chamber  C.  As  the  piston  reaches  the  lower  end  of  its  stroke 
it  brings  the  admission-port  D  (Fig.  304)  in  the  hollow  piston  oppo- 
site the  by-pass  opening  E  E  E,  thus  allowing  the  vapor-charge  in 
the  crank-chamber  to  pass  into  the  upper  end  of  cylinder  or  com- 


H 


FIG.  305. — Section  of  ignition-chamber  and  break-spark  device. 

bustion-chamber  G,  through  the  admission-valve  f ,  which  is  forced 
open.  At  the  beginning  of  the  upward  stroke  of  the  piston,  the 
valve  f  is  closed  by  the  tension  of  the  spring  S,  and  the  gas  thus 


334 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


held  in  the  chamber  G  is  compressed  by  the  piston  moving  up  against 
it.  The  charge  is  then  ignited  by  an  electric  spark  in  the  ignition- 
chamber  H  (Fig.  305).  The  expansion  caused  by  the  explosion  of 
this  gas  forces  the  piston  downward.  As  the  piston  passes  down- 


FIG.  306. — Section  of  small  sized  motor. 


ward,  the  exhaust-port  K  is  opened  and  the  burned  products  of 
combustion  are  entirely  exhausted  from  the  cylinder,  upward 
pressure  on  the  valve  f  is  thereby  relieved,  and  the  new  vapor, 
which  has  been  compressed  in  the  crank-chamber  by  the  downward 


MARINE  MOTORS  335 

stroke  of  the  piston,  is  again  allowed  to  pass  through  the  port  D 
and  the  chamber  E  E  E,  and  thus,  by  its  pressure,  forces  open 
the  valve  f,  which  allows  a  new  charge  to  enter  the  cylinder- 
chamber  G. 

A  special  feature  of  both  types  of  design  in  the  Smalley  motors 
is  the  charging-port  through  the  wall  of  the  piston,  which  by  its 
position  effects  a  cooling  influence  on  the  piston  not  attainable 
otherwise  than  by  water  circulation,  which  is  complicated  and 
troublesome. 

The  method  of  oiling  the  piston  and  crank-pin  is  also  notable 
in  these  motors.  The  piston-pin  and  connecting-rod  are  hollow 
and  receive  oil  through  the  piston-pin  from  the  cylinder  oil-cup 
and  cylinder  oil-hole  at  the  moment  of  exhaust. 

The  general  agency  of  the  Smalley  Motor  Company  is  the  Fair- 
banks Company,  corner  of  Broome  and  Elm  Streets,  New  York. 


CHAPTER    XXII 

MOTOR-BICYCLES,   TRICYCLES,    AND    AUTOMOBILES 

THE  great  progress  made  in  adapting  explosive  motor-power 
to  high-speed  road- travel  during  the  past  few  years  has  accom- 
plished marvellous  results  in  speed  and  design  of  road- vehicles. 
The  bicycle  and  tricycle  are  now  self-running  road-speeders,  and 
the  automobile  of  many  kinds  and  names  is  in  range  with  the 
steam-locomotive  in  speed  and  in  racing  has  outreached  all  com- 
petitors. It  has  fostered  a  desire  for  good  roads  among  our 
people,  resulting  in  a  vast  improvement  over  the  rough  roads  of 
the  olden  time.  Let  the  good  work  go  on!  As  this  book  is  in  the 
line  of  technical  art,  the  details  of  automobile-power  have  been 
illustrated  as  far  as  attainable  throughout  its  pages,  and  we  only 
give  a  few  examples  of  reference  in  this  chapter  on  motor-vehicles. 
The  racing  automobiles  of  a  special  design  for  great  speed,  with  a 
hundred  horse-power  and  a  capacity  of  as  many  miles  per  hour, 
are  marvels  of  this  fast  age. 

THE    MOTOR-BICYCLE 

In  this  age  of  rapid  transit,  both  in  commercial  and  pleasure 
pursuits,  the  public  are  interested  in  a  machine  which  will  carry 
them  at  either  a  high  or  low  rate  of  speed  over  all  ordinary  roads, 
found  in  the  city  or  the  country. 

The  bicycle  has  been  enjoyed  in  the  past  by  thousands  of  riders 
who,  until  then,  did  not  know  the  pleasures  to  be  found  from  "a 
run  into  the  country."  There  are  many  now  who  look  back  on 
those  days  as  among  the  most  pleasant  they  have  ever  enjoyed. 
But  as  the  world  moves  on,  so  has  the  demand  for  more  rapid  travel 
with  less  physical  exertion  brought  to  perfection  the  motor-bicycle. 

There  is  probably  no  machine  which  so  fully  meets  the  general 
requirements  as  the  motor-bicycle.  It  is  light;  can  be  driven  over 
336 


MOTOR-BICYCLES,   TRICYCLES,    AND   AUTOMOBILES        337 

roads  impossible  to  pass  in  a  four-wheeled  machine;  carried,  if 
necessary,  over  impassable  roads,  or  propelled  by  its  rider  in  case 
of  break-downs.  For  business,  it  is  always  ready;  is  quickly 
handled;  capable  of  going  everywhere,  and  will  " stand  without 
hitching." 

For  pleasure,  it  gives  the  rider  trie  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
greatest  extent  of  country  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 

The  motor-bicycle  is  not  an  expensive  machine  to  operate  and 
keep.  It  costs  less  than  a  cent  per  mile  to  operate,  and  does  not 
require  a  special  building  or  barn,  as  it  occupies  but  little  space, 
which  can  be  easily  spared  in  any  house. 


FIG.  307. — The  Thor  motor-bicycle,  made  by  the  Aurora  Automatic 
Machinery  Company,  Aurora,  111. 

In  fact,  to  sum  the  whole  matter  up,  all  the  arguments  which 
are  usually  brought  against  the  horse  and  automobile  are  answered 
and  overcome  in  the  motor-bicycle. 

The  principal  feature  in  the  general  construction  and  design 
of  the  Thor  motor  and  component  parts  is  that  the  main  parts  are 
so  combined  that  none  of  them  can  be  omitted  without  weakening 
the  general  construction,  or  marring  the  beauty  of  the  outline. 

The  frame  is  not  built  up  complete  in  itself,  and  the  motor  and 
accessories  clamped  on,  as  in  many  other  designs.  The  motor 
itself  forms  a  necessary  part  of  the  frame.  The  inlet-tube  and  the 


338 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


throttle-device  form  the  support  for  the  carbureter.  The  wheel- 
guard  forms  a  support  for  the  tanks;  the  exhaust- tube  a  support 
for  the  muffler,  etc.  In  this  way  there  is  secured,  to  the  greatest 
possible  extent,  the  stability,  compactness,  and  light  weight  of  the 
complete  machine. 

The  motor  is  of  the  ribbed,  air-cooled,  four-cycle  type,  with  the 
exhaust-valve  opened  by  a  cam  on  the  reducing-gear,  jump-spark 

ignition,  and  controlled  from 
the  handle  by  holding  the  ex- 
haust open  and  by  interrupting 
the  electric  current. 


FIG.  308. — Thor  motor. 


FIG.  309. — Grip-controller 
and  automatic  switch. 


The  tanks  holding  gasoline  and  lubricating  oil  are  attached  to 
the  machine  in  a  manner  that  adds  to  the  general  symmetry. 
These  tanks  are  clamped  together  around  the  rear  stays  and  sup- 
ported by  the  rear-guard.  They  appear  as  a  part  of  the  frame,  and 
assist,  in  a  large  measure,  in  steadying  the  entire  structure. 

The  control  is  in  the  right-hand  grip,  and  can  be  operated  as 
easily  and  as  effectively  by  a  child  as  by  a  man.  It  does  not 
interfere  with  the  steering,  it  being  possible  to  turn  the  front 
wheel  around,  at  the  same  time  operating  from  any  angle,  or  com- 


MOTOR-BICYCLES,    TRICYCLES,   AND   AUTOMOBILES        339 

pletely  reversed,  if  desired.  It  operates  both  the  exhaust-valve 
and  the  current,  and  when  shut  off  the  rider  unconsciously  stops 
the  flow  of  electric  current;  this  effects  a  saving  in  batteries,  which 
up  to  this  time  has  not  been  fully  appreciated. 

The  control  does  away  with  the  wiring  through  the  handle-bar, 
and  all  loose  wiring  around  the  motor.  The  automatic  switch 
positively  disconnects  the  electrical  circuit  when  exhaust-valve  is 
lifted. 

The  battery  and  induction-coil  cases  are  attached  to  the  lower 
front  bar  on  the  machine  in  such  a  manner  that  they  occupy  the 
least  possible  amount  of  space,  and  at  the  same  time  are  out  of  the 
way.  They  are  so  situated  that  the  necessary  wire-connections  are 
all  short  and  easily  accessible. 

OPERATION   AND    CARE   OF  THE   THOR   MOTOR-BICYCLE 

A  few  instructions  for  the  operation  and  care  of  the  motor- 
bicycle  may  be  appreciated  by  the  novice  as  well  as  by  the  expert. 

When  starting  out  for  a  ride,  fill  the  gasoline-tank,  using  from 
74  to  76  test  gasoline.  A  pocket- tester  for  this  purpose  may  be 
secured  from  any  dealer  in  automobile  or  motor-bicycle  supplies. 
When  filling  the  tank,  use  a  funnel  with  a  strainer.  A  lower-test 
gasoline  can  be  used,  but  the  best  results,  especially  in  cold  weather, 
are  secured  from  the  higher  test. 

Fill  the  lubricating  oil-tank,  using  a  high  grade  of  cylinder- 
oil.  Open  the  oil-tank  valve,  and  allow  the  oil  to  flow  into  the  oil- 
cup.  When  the  cup  is  full,  close  this  valve,  and  open  oil-cup 
valve,  allowing  the  oil  to  flow  into  the  base  of  the  motor.  This  will 
lubricate  all  the  working  parts  automatically,  and  will  last  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  miles,  ordinary  riding.  Owing  to  the 
high  speed  of  the  motor,  a  better  grade  of  cylinder-oil  than  is 
generally  used  in  automobiles  is  desirable. 

Examine  all  electrical  connections,  making  sure  they  are  clean, 
properly  attached,  and  tightened.  Investigate  the  battery.  It 
should  contain  at  least  four  and  one-half  volts,  and  should  not  run 
below  two  or  three  amperes.  A  set  of  batteries  will  last  for  about 
1,500  miles  with  ordinary  care  and  usage. 

See  that  all  the  screws  and  connections  are  properly  tightened. 


340  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

Open  valve  between  gasoline- tank  and  carbureter. 

If  the  machine  has  been  standing  out  in  freezing  weather,  the 
piston  will  work  hard,  and  the  inlet-valve  may  stick.  To  release 
the  valve,  press  down  the  spring-cap  on  top  of  the  exhaust-dome. 
Should  this  not  overcome  the  trouble,  unscrew  this  cap,  and  a  little 
gasoline  dropped  into  the  dome  while  valve  is  depressed,  and 
machine  is  slightly  pushed  forward,  will  make  the  motor  start 
easily. 

Replace  the  cap,  and  insert  switch-key,  which  must  be  clean; 
see  that  the  regulating-pins  on  top  of  carbureter  are  turned  tow- 
ard the  letter  S;  press  down  the  priming-pin  in  the  carbureter, 
and  admit  fresh  gasoline.  Mount  the  machine  and  pedal,  at  the 
same  time  turning  the  right-hand  grip  to  the  left.  This  will  close 
the  exhaust-valve,  connect  the  current,  and  the  motor  will  start. 
Continue  pedalling  a  few  turns  after  the  motor  has  started,  as  this 
will  greatly  relieve  the  strain,  which  naturally  occurs  when  putting 
motor  into  full  action. 

Upon  returning  from  a  trip  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five 
miles,  or  if  on  a  journey  exceeding  this  mileage,  while  the  motor 
is  still  hot,  open  the  exhaust-valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  motor- 
base,  and  drain  off  the  old  lubricating  oil. 

When  the  machine  is  not  in  operation,  the  valve  from  the  gaso- 
line-tank should  be  kept  closed,  and  the  switch-key  removed. 

Chains  should  be  kept  adjusted  tighter  than  on  the  ordinary 
bicycle,  and  well  lubricated. 

If  any  trouble  occurs  on  the  road,  it  is  either  due  to  the  insu- 
lation, electrical  connections,  or  to  the  spark-plug  being  fouled. 
These  parts  should  be  carefully  investigated  and  cleaned.  There 
may,  of  course,  be  other  reasons,  but  from  actual  experience  it  has 
been  found  that  the  above  reasons  cover  the  majority  of  troubles. 

Rules  and  regulations  may  be  laid  <iown,  but  of  all  the  rules, 
reasonable  care,  cleanliness,  and,  above  all,  common-sense,  will 
enable  the  rider  to  enjoy  every  mile  of  his  ride. 

With  proper  care  and  precaution,  the  motor  will  start  at  a 
moment's  notice  at  any  time,  rain  or  shine,  day  or  night,  summer 
or  winter,  and  carry  its  rider  swiftly  and  silently  to  destination. 


MOTOR-BICYCLES,   TRICYCLES,    AND   AUTOMOBILES      341 


THE    MITCHELL    MOTOR-BICYCLE 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  310  a  motor-bicycle  made  by  the  Wis- 
consin Wheel  Works,  Racine,  Wis.  The  general  model  is  of  the 
ordinary  type  with  a  diamond  tube-frame  with  stronger  reinforce- 
ments than  used  in  the  foot-power  machines.  The  motor  is  of  the 
ribbed  four-cycle  type  for  air-cooling  with  a  3-inch  X  3-inch  diam- 
eter and  stroke  cylinder.  The  motor  runs  up  to  1,400  revolutions 
per  minute;  it  drives  the  bicycle  by  a  rawhide  band  and  pulleys  of 
varying  sizes,  suitable  for  heavy  and  light  road-work,  or  hill  climb- 


FIG.  310. — Motor-bicycle. 

ing.  An  adjustable  tightening-pulley  makes  the  one  band  suitable 
for  all  speeds.  Weight  of  the  complete  outfit,  120  pounds.  Tank 
supply,  seven  pints  of  gasoline,  which  gives  a  mileage  of  from 
sixty  to  seventy  miles.  The  ignition  is  by  jump-spark  from  a  pair 
of  dry  batteries  attached  to  the  frame  behind  the  seat  and  an 
induction  coil  under  the  seat,  the  gasoline  being  stored  in  a  nar- 
row case  inside  the  frame  near  the  motor. 

A  lever  convenient  to  the  right  hand  lifts  the  exhaust-valve 
for  ease  of  starting  and  allows  of  coasting  with  the  gasoline  cut 
off,  thus  cooling  the  motor  and  saving  fuel. 

The  mo  tor- tricycle,  so  greatly  popular  in  France,  and  for  a  time 
popular  in  the  United  States,  for  a  single  rider,  has  been  partially 
superseded  by  the  motor-bicycle.  Its  freedom  from  balance-care 
and  breakage  from  overturning  still  recommends  it  as  a  comfortable 
light  vehicle. 

The  De  Dion-Bouton  carbureter  and  motor  for  tricycles  are 


342 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


detailed  in  sections  in  Fig.  311.  In  the  vaporiz ing-carbureter  the 
air  enters  through  the  tube  A,  spreading  over  the  surface  of  the 
gasoline  and  under  the  plate  B,  which  is  adjustable  to  the  vary- 
ing height  of  the  gasoline  by  sliding  the  tube  in  the  socket  at  A.  The 
same  tube  carries  a  wire  and  float  for  indicating  the  height  of  the 
fuel.  Additional  air  for  regulating  the  mixture  is  drawn  in  through 
the  regulating-cock  at  C,  and  shown  in  detail  in  the  small  section 


FIG.  311. — Tricycle-motor  and  carbureter. 

at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  cut.  The  diluted  mixture  is 
further  regulated  in  its  passage  to  the  cylinder  by  the  cock  in  the 
right-hand  chamber  of  the  section. 

A  part  of  the  exhaust  is  passed  through  the  carbureter  by  the 
pipe  G  to  avoid  excessive  cooling  of  the  gasoline  by  evaporation. 
The  details  of  the  motor  parts  are  self-explanatory. 

The  vehicle-motors  of  the  Brennan  Motor  Company,  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  are  standardized  for  the  special  service  of  light  vehicles  of  the 
runabout  class  and  for  the  finer  styles  of  automobiles  for  high 


MOTOR-BICYCLES,   TRICYCLES,   AND   AUTOMOBILES       343 

speeds.     Their  air-cooled,  five-horse-power,  two-cylinder  motor  for 
runabout  service  is  a  model  of  compactness,  lightness,  and  power. 


FIG.  312. — 5-horse-power,  light-weight,  air-cooled  runabout  motor. 

The  balanced  method  of  construction  by  the  opposed  cylinders 
gives  absolute  freedom  from  vibration  by  the  simultaneous  im- 


PAT.DEC.6.J903 

FIG.  313. — Water-cooled  motor,  8  to  30  horse-power. 

pulse  from  opposite  pistons  and  opposite  rotative  forces.     The 
water-cooled  motors  especially  designed  for  high-class  automobile 


344 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


service  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  313,  and  a  section  of  the  detailed 
parts  in  Fig.  158.  It  has  a  three-speed  sliding-gear  direct  in  line 
of  the  shaft  with  a  clutch  fitted  to  the  balance-wheel.  They  are 
operated  at  90  pounds  compression,  and  in  motors  from  six  to 
sixteen  horse-power  have  a  range  of  speed  of  from  150  to  1,300  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  Those  of  twenty  and  thirty  horse-power  have 


FIG.  314. — Chadwick  light  auto-motor. 

a  speed-range  of  from  100  to  1,100  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
vertical  multicylinder  motors  of  this  company,  in  units  of  twelve, 
eighteen,  and  thirty-two  horse-power,  are  on  the  high-speed  grade 
and  variable  to  meet  automobile  requirement.  They  are  fur- 
nished with  three-speed  sliding-gear  direct  in  line  with  motor-shaft, 
clutch  fitted  to  balance-wheel. 


MOTOR-BICYCLES,   TRICYCLES,    AND   AUTOMOBILES         345 

In  Fig.  314  we  illustrate  the  Chad  wick  automobile  and  marine 
motor,  built  by  the  Fairmount  Engineering  Works,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  Their  motors  for  special  service  are  the  lightest  made,  having 
copper  water-jackets  and  aluminum  base. 

The  twenty-horse-power  auto-motor  with  four  cylinders,  four 
and  one-sixteenth  by  five  inches,  complete  with  fly-wheel,  weighs 
315  pounds,  or  less  than  sixteen  pounds  per  horse-power,  with 
speed  variation  of  from  100  to  2,000  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
twenty-four-horse-power  auto-motor,  with  four  cylinders,  four  and 
one-half  by  five  inches,  complete  as  above,  weighs  450  pounds,  or 
18.7  pounds  per  horse-power;  speed  variation  of  from  100  to  2,000 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  forty-horse-power  auto-motor,  with 
four  cylinders,  five  by  six  inches,  is  a  marvel  of  lightness,  weighing 
but  460  pounds,  or  11 J  pounds  per  horse-power. 


THE   HENRICKS   MAGNETO   AND   GOVERNOR 

In  Figs.  315  and  316,  we  illustrate  one  of  the  latest  novelties 
in  ignition  appliances ;  a  magneto  generator  and  governor  in  which 
the  speed  of  the  armature  is  so  controlled  by  a  centrifugal  governor 


FIG.  315. — The  Henri cks  FIG.  316.— Dynamo  governor  and 

magneto.  friction-disk. 

on  its  own  shaft,  that  the  variation  of  the  motor-speed  does  not 
affect  the  speed  of  the  armature. 

The  governor  consists  of  a  friction-disk  held  to  the  fly-wheel  of 
the  engine  by  means  of  a  spring.  The  pressure  of  the  spring 
holding  the  friction-disk  to  the  fly-wheel  is  controlled  by  the 
centrifugal  action  of  the  governor-balls,  so  that  as  the  speed  in- 


346  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

creases,  the  balls  expand  and  loosen  the  tension  of  the  spring 
against  the  friction-disk,  thus  slowing  down  the  speed  of  the  arma- 
ture and  the  contrary  when  the  engine-speed  slows. 

In  this  manner  by  the  slipping  of  the  friction-disk  the  speed 
of  the  armature  is  made  uniform  within  very  narrow  limits  and 
thus  insuring  a  steady  and  powerful  electric-sparking  current, 
so  desirable  for  the  uniform  action  of  explosive  motors.  The 
irregular  speed  of  the  armature  of  an  ignition  dynamo,  when  driven 
at  the  varying  speed  of  the  motor  on  automobiles  and  launches, 
makes  one  of  the  troubles  in  firing  the  explosive  charge  not  easily 
found  or  accounted  for  and  which  makes  this  governor  a  most 
desirable  adjunct  of  every  sparking  dynamo  for  controlling  its 
speed  when  driven  from  a  variable-speed  motor.  These  magneto 
dynamos  and  governors  are  made  by  the  Henricks  Novelty  Com- 
pany, Indianapolis,  Ind. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

KEROSENE,    DISTILLATE,   AND    PETROLEUM-OIL   MOTORS 

THE  incentive  to  explosive-motor  design  in  the  line  of  economy 
of  power  has  been  the  means  of  producing  remarkable  results  in 
the  adaptation  of  the  use  of  the  cruder  and  cheaper  fuel-oils  for 
motive  power.  The  rise  in  the  cost  of  gasoline  gave  an  impetus 
to  experiments  for  utilizing  the  heavier  petroleum  products,  and 
kerosene  and  distillate  came  into  successful  use,  and  finally  crude 
petroleum  in  its  cheapest  form  is  at  the  head  of  fluid  fuel  as  an 
all  around  and  portable  element  of  power  and  obtainable  the  world 
over. 

For  stationary  motive  power  there  is  a  further  economy  in 
the  producer  and  blast-furnace  gases  that  is  greatly  expanding  the 
field  of  operation  for  the  explosive  motor  and  will  continue  during 
the  coming  years,  when  its  power,  like  that  of  steam,  will  become 
stationary  in  its  economical  progress. 

Much  detail  of  oil-motors  is  also  described  and  illustrated  in 
previous  chapters  of  this  work. 

In  Fig.  317  is  illustrated  a  view  of  the  kerosene-oil  engine  of 
the  International  Power  Vehicle  Company,  Stamford,  Conn. 

The  kerosene-engine  differs  from  the  gasoline-engine  in  essential 
details  of  its  mechanism,  due  to  the  different  natures  of  the  two 
fuels.  Kerosene  being  less  volatile,  no  carbureter  is  used  to  con- 
vert the  fluid  into  gas.  The  oil  is  introduced  into  the  cylinder  as 
a  spray,  mixed  with  air,  and  is  changed  into  a  gaseous  condition 
within  the  cylinder  before  ignition  occurs  by  means  of  heat  which 
must  be  within  well-defined  limits.  If  the  vaporous  fuel  comes 
in  contact  with  too  great  a  heat  the  petroleum  is  disintegrated,  its 
hydrogen  escapes,  and  its  carbon  deposits  in  stone-like  scales  upon 
the  cylinder-head,  while  too  little  heat  will  not  produce  the  gaseous 
condition  necessary  to  perfect  combustion. 

The  engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  318,  and  Fig.  319  in  section,  show- 

347 


348 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


ing  the  position  of  the  piston  when  ignition  is  taking  place,  and 
when  the  exhaust-gases  are  escaping  and  the  fresh  charge  entering. 
When  the  piston  has  risen  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  upward  stroke 
the  air-inlet  A  is  uncovered,  and  as  there  is  a  partial  vacuum 

in  the  air-tight  crank-case 

C,  the  air  rushes  in.     As 
the    piston   descends,  im- 
pelled by  the  ignited  gases, 
the  air  in  the  crank-case 
is  compressed,  the  pressure 
extending  to  the  passage 

D.  The    descending   pis- 
ton   finally    uncovers    the 
exhaust  -  passage,  through 
which   the  inert    gases  of 
combustion     escape,     im- 
pelled   first    by  the  pres- 
sure    remaining     in     the 
cylinder,  and  then  by  the 
rush    of    air    through   the 
inlet   E,  which  is  opened 
after  the  exhaust,  as  will 
be    noticed    in    Fig.    319. 
The  moment  the  inlet  E 
is  opened  the  compressed 
air  in  the  crank-case  and 
air-passage  rushes  into  the 
cylinder,  driving   out   the 
remaining  gases,  except  a 
small  amount  left  in  the 

cavity  holding  the  firing-plug  F.  This  small  residue  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  successful  operation  of  the  engine,  for  it  keeps 
the  new  charge  away  from  the  red-hot  firing-plug  until  the  proper 
time  for  igniting.  As  compression  takes  place  above  the  piston 
during  its  upward  stroke,  the  new  charge  forces  the  burned  gases 
farther  into  the  cavity,  until  the  new  charge  comes  in  contact 
with  the  plug  and  is  ignited.  The  plug  has  a  screw-stem,  by  which 
its  position  in  the  cavity  may  be  adjusted  by  a  nut  on  the  outside 


FIG.  317. — Kerosene-oil  engine. 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    349 

of  the  cylinder-head  to  correspond  to  the  power  required.  With- 
drawing the  plug  into  the  cavity  delays  ignition,  thus  furnishing 
greater  power.  Advancing  it  nearer  to  the  opening  of  the  cavity 
advances  the  ignition,  and  less  power  is  developed. 

The  charge  of  fuel  is  introduced  through  the  inlet  B,  either  from 
a  pressure-tank  or  by  the  suction  created  by  the  partial  vacuum  of 
the  crank-case.  A  check- valve  prevents  the  oil  from  returning 
through  B  after  it  has  been  admitted.  The  oil  as  it  enters  the 
engine  is  received  on  a  gauze  screen  H,  and  by  capillary  attraction 
forms  a  thin  film  upon  it  until  the  entrance  E  is  uncovered  and 
the  air  rushes  into  the  cylinder,  passing  through  the  gauze,  taking 
the  oil  with  it  in  a  very  fine  spray,  so  fine  that  if  permitted  to 
escape  into  the  air  it  would  float.  The  intermingled  air  and  oil- 
spray  passing  up  into  the  cylinder  strikes  the  hot  cylinder-head  at 


FIG.  318. — Ignition. 


FIG.  319.— Exhaust. 


G.  The  heat  of  the  metal  is  not  enough  to  ignite  the  oil,  nor  to 
cause  it  to  "  crack,"  i.e.,  give  off  hydrogen  and  deposit  carbon. 
Instead,  this  heat  converts  the  oil  and  air  into  a  gaseous  mixture, 
which  is  maintained  by  the  heat  of  compression  until  the  moment 
of  igniting. 

The  ignition-plug  replaces  the  torch,  which  need  be  applied  only 
in  giving  to  the  plug  its  initial  red  heat  for  the  first  discharges,  after 
which  the  heat  of  ignition  is  all  that  is  necessary. 


350 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


For  changing  the  speed  of  the  engine  a  butterfly-valve?  shown 
at  M,  Fig.  319,  in  the  air-transfer  box,  is  employed  for  throttling 
and  is  automatically  controlled  by  the  governor,  which  is  of  the 
usual  type. 

In  Fig.  320  is  illustrated  their  marine  motor,  of  the  kerosene-oil 
type,  which  is  of  the  same  design  as  the  stationary  motor.  The 
perforated  tube  projecting  below  the  exhaust-opening  is  a  pro- 
tecting cover  to  the  air-inlet  A,  as  before  described.  A  reversing- 


FIG.  320. — Kerosene-oil  marine  engine. 

gear  controlled  by  a  lever  is  used  in  connection  with  a  solid  three- 
blade  propeller. 

NEW    YORK    KEROSENE    MARINE    MOTOR 

Fig.  321  illustrates  a  marine  engine  built  by  the  New  York 
Kerosene-Oil  Engine  Company,  New  York  City.  This  engine 
is  provided  with  a  combustion-chamber  B,  into  which  kerosene 
is  injected  through  an  atomizer  A.  A  lamp  L  is  used  to  heat 
the  chamber  B,  preparatory  to  starting.  The  air  inlet-valve  and 
the  exhaust-valve  are  actuated  by  cams  in  the  ordinary  manner 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    351 


>— A 


WATER  OUTLET 


on  a  secondary  shaft,  the  engine  being  of  the  four-cycle  type. 
The  injection  of  oil  is  accomplished  by  the  pump  D,  actuated  by 
one  arm  of  a  rock-lever,  which  is  oscillated  by  a  cam  on  the  sec- 
ondary shaft. 

The  charge  of  kerosene  is  regulated  by  the  stroke  of  the  pump, 
which  is  controlled  by  a  lever  in  the  marine  motors  and  by  a 
governor  in  stationary  motors. 

The  injection  of  the  oil  is  in  a  very  fine  stream  under  con- 
siderable force,  by  which 
it  is  atomized  in  the  hot- 
chamber  B.  The  blow- 
pipe lamp  L  is  made  per- 
manent in  the  stationary 
engines  with  an  air-pres- 
sure combination  for  gas 
or  gasoline.  In  the  marine 
motors  a  tank  air-pressure 
kerosene  -  torch  is  used 
which  heats  the  combus- 
tion-chamber ready  for 
starting  the  motor  in  about 
five  minutes.  The  clear- 
ance is  so  adjusted  that 
the  compression  is  carried 
to  eighty-five  pounds,  at 
which  point,  or  just  before 
the  piston  reaches  the  dead 
centre,  the  charge  of  oil 
is  suddenly  injected  and 
vaporized  by  the  heat  of  compression  and  the  walls  of  the  vapor- 
izing-chamber.  By  the  late  injection  of  the  oil  preignition  is 
impossible,  and  the  atomizing  of  the  oil  being  instantaneous  is 
followed  by  its  perfect  vaporization  in  its  mixture  with  the  hot 
air.  The  firing  of  the  charge  of  partially  mixed  oil-vapor  and 
air  is  exact  and  instantaneous  as  to  time,  and  owing  to  the  small 
volume  of  the  clearance  space  carries  the  pressure  up  to  about  190 
pounds,  and  by  continuous  combustion  during  the  impulse-stroke 
gives  a  higher  expansion-curve  than  is  due  to  the  adiabatic 


FIG.  321. — New  York  kerosene  marine 
motor. 


352 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


line,  and  showing  by  the  indicator  card  a  mean  effective  pressure 
of  seventy-four  pounds.  This  exceeds  the  usual  mean  pressure  in 
gas  and  gasoline  explosive  motors.  These  motors  are  built  in 
sizes  of  two,  five,  ten,  and  twenty  horse-power,  with  one,  two,  and 
four  cylinders. 

In  Fig.  322  is  illustrated  a  section  of  the  kerosene-oil  motor  of 

the  American  and  British  Manufacturing  Company,  Providence, R.I. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  ignition  is  accomplished  by  the  usual 

ignition  hot-dome  D,  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  cylinder,  the 
dome  being  protected  by  a  dam- 
per-cap to  prevent  heat  radia- 
tion after  the  engine  is  started. 
A  concentric  cap  fits  over  the 
inner  cap.  When  both  apertures 
coincide,  the  heating-lamp  for 
starting  is  placed  inside;  after 
starting,  the  outer  cap  is  rotated 
till  the  apertures  are  covered. 

The  operation  of  the  engine 
is  as  follows:  the  ignition-dome 
D  is  heated  for  five  minutes  or 
more  by  a  Primus  kerosene  blue- 
flame  torch,  then  the  handle  of 
a  small  oil-pump  is  operated  a 
few  times,  to  force  the  oil  up 
from  the  tank  T  through  the 
nozzle  0  into  the  cylinder  F. 
One  or  two  quick  turns  of  the  fly-wheel  are  given,  then  the  engine 
starts. 

On  the  up  stroke  of  the  piston  P,  air  is  drawn  in  through  two 
holes  A  in  the  base,  and  follows  the  piston  through  the  port  B  into 
the  crank-case  C  as  soon  as  the  piston  uncovers  the  port.  On  its 
descent  the  piston  slightly  compresses  this  air  in  the  crank-case 
until  its  upper  end  uncovers  the  exhaust  E  and  also  the  air-inlet, 
then  the  exhaust-gases  pass  out  of  E,  and  by  the  curved  top  of 
the  piston  the  air  from  the  crank-case  is  projected  upward  at  the 
same  time  into  the  cylinder  and  locked  there  upon  the  upward 


FIG.  322. — Section  of  oil-motor. 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    353 

stroke  of  the  piston  P,  which  closes  the  air-inlet  and  exhaust- 
port  E. 

The  air  in  the  cylinder  is  then  further  compressed  and  heated 
by  the  continuation  of  the  up  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  just  as  the 
latter  is  about  to  descend  a  minute  quantity  of  kerosene  is  injected 
by  the  oil-feed  pump  and  is  immediately  vaporized  and  mixed 
with  the  air,  forming  an  explosive  mixture  that  is  in  turn  ignited  by 
the  hot  dome  D,  the  explosion  driving  the  piston  downwarcT.  The 
combustion  is  so  perfect  that  the  cylinder  always  remains  clean 


FIG.  323. — The  Doack  motor,  3  to  10  horse-power. 

and  the  piston  is  never  clogged  by  soot.  There  is  thus  a  positive 
entrance  of  the  air  and  oil  to  the  cylinder  in  regular  sequence. 
G  is  an  oil-well  for  one  of  the  main  bearings,  and  H  is  a  faucet  for 
drawing  off  the  oil  collecting  in  the  bottom  of  the  crank-case. 

An  eccentric  on  the  main  shaft  with  a  variable  throw,  regulated 
by  a  simple  governor,  changes  the  stroke  of  the  oil-feed  pump  to 
suit  the  load.  The  engine  responds  very  quickly  to  the  varying 
quantities  of  fuel  it  receives,  and  the  governing  action  is  conse- 
quently positive  and  very  close.  This  results  in  high  efficiency, 
and  makes  it  possible  to  obtain  a  brake  horse-power  with  0.7  to 
0.8  pound  of  oil,  or  a  little  less  than  a  pint. 


354 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


The  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil  engines  of  Henshaw,  Bulkley  and 
Company,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  are  of  compact  and  neat  design,  and 
embrace  some  novelties  of  simplicity  of  parts  that  obviates  some  of 
the  troubles  of  complex  parts  in  explosive-motors.  The  frame, 
cylinder,  and  cylinder-head  are  cast  in  one  piece  and  are  mounted 
upon  a  stone  or  concrete  sub-base,  which  with  its  weight  makes 
a  very  solid  foundation.  The  cylinder  and  head  being  in  one  piece, 
the  troubles  of  water-leakage  into  the  cylinder  are  entirely  overcome. 

The  fuel  and  air-inlet  valves  are  in  a  separate  casting,  bolted 
to  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  so  as  to  avoid  a  side-chamber  and  its 


FIG.  324. — Details  of  the  motor  parts. 

C.  Distillate-pipe.  D.  Gasoline-pipe.  1.  Admission-valve.  2.  Admission-nuts.  3.  Ad- 
mission-spring. 4.  Admission-cap.  5.  Fuel-valve.  6.  Fuel-valve  casing.  7.  Needle-valve. 
9.  Admission  valve-chest.  26.  Exhaust-cam.  27.  Exhaust-roller.  28.  Exhaust  roller-stud. 
29.  Exhaust-lever  stud.  30.  Exhaust  roller-shipper  and  knob.  31.  Exhaust-lever.  32.  Exhaust- 
lever  steel  tongue.  33.  Governor  latch-blade.  34.  Governor-latch,  bell-crank.  36.  Cam-shaft 
bracket.  37.  Governing  spring-nut.  38.  Governing  spring-rod. 

extra  wall-surface.  The  exhaust- valve  is  on  the  underside  of  the 
cylinder  with  its  seat  water-jacketed.  The  governing  is  by  holding 
open  the  exhaust-valve  and  making  a  hit-or-miss  charge. 

The  governor  is  a  very  neat  device.  A  three-arm  bell-crank, 
on  the  centre  arm  of  which  the  governor  acts  by  a  push-rod, 
pressing  it  down  against  a  spring  and  regulating-nut,  on  the 
upper  arm,  causing  the  lower  arm  to  push  the  roller  of  the  exhaust- 
valve  lever  onto  a  high  section  of  the  cam  and  thus  holds  open  the 
exhaust-valve  until  relieved  by  the  governor. 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    355 

The  fuel  used  is  gas,  gasoline,  kerosene,  or  distillate.  When 
kerosene  or  distillate  is  used  the  engine  is  started  with  gasoline. 
With  crude  oil  a  retort  heated  by  the  exhaust  is  used. 

The  engines  were  designed  by  Mr.  John  E.  Doack,  and  are  known 
as  the  Doack  engines. 

KEROSENE-OIL   ENGINES 

In  Fig.  325  we  illustrate  in  sections  the  details  of  the  new  style 
Mietz  and  Weiss  kerosene-oil  engine.  The  new  feature  is  the  use  in 


FIG.  325. — Section  of  steam,  air,  and  oil-engine. 

the  cylinder  of  steam  generated  in  the  water-space  of  the  cylinder- 
jacket,  which  is  different  from  all  other  explosive  motors  in  principle 
and  effect. 

It  utilizes  a  large  part  of  the  heat  ordinarily  lost  through  the 


356 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


cylinder-walls   and   cooling- water,  and  considerably   reduces   the 
trouble  from  deposition  of  carbon  in  the  cylinder  (probably  by 


FIG.  326. — Mietz  and  Weiss  marine  oil-engine. 

REFERENCES  :  34.  Ignition-ball.  70.  Mantle.  125.  Damper.  160.  Damper-regulator. 
176.  Blow-pipe.  94.  Lamp.  61.  Oil-injection.  179.  Regulator-handle.  42.  Oil-pump  plunger. 
44.  Oil-pump  handle.  31.  Air-relief  cock.  40^.  Suction  and  pressure  oil-valves.  123.  Cen- 
trifugal governor  operating  the  throw  of  the  pump-plunger.  The  other  parts  shown  are  self- 
explanatory  as  to  the  general  arrangement  of  the  two-cycle  engine. 

the  dissociation  of  the  water-vapor  furnishing  oxygen  to  the  hot 
particles  of  carbon). 


"So 


357 


358  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

The  new  parts  are  a  small  steam-dome  A,  a  short  steam-pipe 
B,  connecting  the  steam-dome  with  the  air-port,  where  it  is  ad- 
mitted with  the  charge  of  air  into  the  cylinder,  when  the  piston  is 
at  the  forward  end  of  the  stroke.  When  the  piston  reaches  the 
correct  position,  a  small  quantity  of  oil  is  drawn  by  the  oil-pump 
G  through  the  pipe  F  from  the  oil-tank  E,  and  delivered  through 
the  pipe  H  to  the  opening  C,  where  it  falls  upon  the  lip  of  the  red- 
hot  igniter-ball  D,  and  is  exploded  along  with  the  air  and  by  its 
heat  dissociates  the  steam,  which  adds  further  elements  of  com- 
bustion to  the  unconsumed  carbon;  thus  increasing  the  mean 
pressure  of  the  expansion-curve. 

An  efficiency  is  claimed  for  the  steam,  air,  and  oil  mixture  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  higher  than  for  the  oil  and  air 
mixture  alone,  the  total  thermal  efficiency  in  a  test  being  forty- 
four  per  cent,  with  a  compression  pressure  of  100  pounds  gauge,  and 
170  pounds  explosion  pressure  by  gauge,  using  one  pint  of  oil  per 
brake  horse-power  per  hour. 

The  tests  were  made  on  a  fifteen-horse-power  engine  of  the  two- 
cycle  type  in  which  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  crank-case,  during 
the  compression-stroke  through  the  suction-port  from  the  engine- 
base';  is  compressed  during  the  impulse-stroke  and  passes  through 
the  side-port,  taking  a  portion  of  steam  in  its  passage.  Since  there 
is  no  circulation  through  the  water-jacket,  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  jacket  is  maintained  at  a  constant  level  by  a  float-trap 
in  a  side  compartment,  and  only  water  is  fed  to  equalize  the  evapo- 
ration, with  a  water  temperature  just  below  the  boiling-point  and 
which  has  been  found  to  be  the  best  working  temperature  for  an 
explosive  motor. 

In  Fig.  326  we  illustrate  a  sectional  view  of  the  Mietz  and  Weiss 
vertical  marine  oil-engine  with  reference  figures  showing  the  detail 
parts.  Kerosene  oil,  the  most  economical  and  conveniently  ob- 
tained fuel  for  explosive-motor  service,  has  been  the  incentive  for 
bringing  the  oil-engine  to  its  utmost  perfection  in  design  and  work- 
ing power,  and  for  marine  motors,  safety  as  well  as  economy  has 
made  it  of  primary  importance  for  launch,  yacht,  and  auxiliary 
service. 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,   AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    359 
THE    HORNSBY-AKROYD    OIL-ENGINE 

This  engine  is  of  English  origin,  the  invention  of  Mr.  H.  Akroyd 
Stuart,  who  has  lately  made  many  improvements  in  its  design  by 
perfecting  the  charging-mixture.  It  is  built  in  the  United  States 


by  the  licensees  of  the  United  States  patents,  the  De  La  Vergne 
Refrigerating  Machine  Company,  New  York  City. 

These  engines  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  using 
kerosene  and  any  of  the  heavy  mineral  oils  as  fuel. 


360 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


In  Fig.  328  is  shown  a  sectional  elevation,  details  of  design 
of  the  cylinder,  piston,  combustion-chamber,  and  its  case.  It  may 
be  noticed  that  the  combustion-chamber  is  made  in  two  parts, 
flanged  together,  so  that  by  a  special  water-jacket  the  front  half  is 
kept  cool  and  to  limit  the  firing-plane  in  the  combustion-chamber 
to  a  definite  position.  The  oil-reservoir,  located  in  the  base  of  the 
engine,  is  partitioned  to  allow  of  traversing  the  intake-air  over 
and  around  the  oil  to  take  any  vapors  or  odors  from  the  oil  and 
constantly  sweep  them  into  the  cylinder. 

An  extension  of  a  chamber  from  the  cylinder-head,  somewhat 
resembling  a  bottle  with  its  neck  next  to  the  cylinder-head,  per- 
forms the  function  of  both  evaporator  and  exploder.  Otherwise 
these  engines  are  built  much  on  the  same  lines  of  design  as  gas 
and  gasoline  engines,  having  a  screw  reducing-gear  and  secondary 
shaft  that  drives  the  governor  by  bevel-gear. 

The  bottle-shaped  extension  is  covered  in  by  a  hood  to  facili- 
tate its  heating  by  a  lamp  or  air  blow-pipe,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be 
entirely  closed  after  the  engine  is  started,  when  the  red  heat  of  the 
bottle  or  retort  is  kept  up  by  the  heat  of  combustion  within.  The 
narrow  neck  between  the  bottle  and  cylinder,  by  its  exact  adjust- 
ment of  size  and  length,  perfectly  controls  the  time  of  ignition,  so 
that  of  many  indicator  cards  inspected  by  the  writer  there  is  no 


FIG.  329, — Injection,  air  and  oil. 


FIG.  330. — Compression. 


perceptible  variation  in  the  time  of  igniti'on,  giving  as  they  do  a. 
sharp  corner  at  the  compression  terminal,  a  quick  and  nearly 
vertical  line  of  combustion,  and  an  expansion  curve  above  the 
adiabatic,  equivalent  to  an  extra-high  mean  engine-pressure  for 
explosive  engines. 

The  oil  is  injected  into  the  retort  in  liquid  form  by  the  action 
of  the  pump  at  the  proper  time  to  meet  the  impulse-stroke,  and 
in  quantity  regulated  by  the  governor.  During  the  outer  stroke 


KEROSENE,  DISTILLATE,  AND   PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    361 

of  the  piston,  air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  and  the  oil  is  vaporized 
in  the  hot  retort.  At  the  end  of  the  charging-stroke  there  is  oil- 
vapor  in  the  retort  and  pure  air  in  the  cylinder,  but  non-explosive. 
On  the  compression-stroke  of  the  piston  the  air  is  forced  from  the 
cylinder  through  the  communicating  neck  into  the  retort,  giving 
the  conditions  represented  in  Fig.  329  and  Fig.  330,  in  which  the 
small  stars  denote  the  fresh  air  entering,  and  the  small  circles  the 
vaporized  oil.  In  Fig.  330  mixture  commences,  and  in  Fig.  331 
combustion  has  taken  place,  and 
during  expansion  the  supposed  con- 
dition is  represented  by  the  small 
squares.  At  the  return  stroke  the 
whole  volume  of  the  cylinder  is  swept 
out  at  the  exhaust,  and  the  pressure 
in  the  retort  neutralized  and  ready  FlG-  331.— Combustion  and  ex- 
pansion, 
for  another  charge. 

It  is  noticed  by  this  operation  that  ignition  takes  place  within 
the  retort,  the  piston  being  protected  by  a  layer  of  pure  air. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  these  diagrams  are  exact  representations 
of  what  actually  takes  place  within  the  cylinder;  nevertheless, 
their  substantial  correctness  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  piston-rings  do  not  become  clogged  with  tarry  substances, 
as  might  be  expected. 

This  has  been  accounted  for  by  an  analysis  of  the  products  of 
combustion,  which  shows  an  excess  of  oxygen  as  unburned  air; 
which  indicates  that  the  oil-vapor  is  completely  burned  in  the 
cylinder,  with  excess  of  oxygen. 


THE    DIESEL    MOTOR 

This  motor  is  an  innovation  upon  all  former  ideals  in  explosive 
power  and  indicates  the  "  Ultima  Thule"  of  explosive-motor  com- 
pression, and  possibly  the  limit  of  fuel  economy  in  this  type  of 
prime  movers.  Mr.  Diesel  has  attempted  to  realize,  within  the 
limitations  of  practice,  an  approach  to  the  conditions  of  the  "Carnot 
cycle"  by  the  production  of  a  motor  of  very  high  thermal  efficiency. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this  result  it  was  evident  that  a  much 
higher  degree  of  compression  was  necessary  than  that  used  in 


362  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

existing  motors,  since  it  was  demanded  that  the  charge  be  com- 
pressed adiabatically  to  the  maximum  initial  pressure  at  \vhich 
the  motor  was  to  be  operated,  this  pressure  not  to  be  exceeded  by 
the  gases  generated  during  the  combustion.  Such  a  compression 
would  naturally  produce  an  increase  in  temperature  sufficient  to 
ignite  the  combustible,  and  hence  it  became  apparent  that  the  fuel 
must  not  be  introduced  with  the  air,  but  that  the  air  must  first  be 
compressed  adiabatically  and  that  the  fuel  must  then  be  intro- 
duced and  burned  during  the  out-stroke  of  the  piston  isothermally, 
if  the  desired  cycle  was  to  be  practically  realized. 


FIG.  332. — The  first  German  Diesel  motor. 

In  the  Diesel  motor  the  high  temperature  attained  by  the  com- 
pression of  the  air  is  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  ignition  of  the 
combustible,  and  it  is  only  necessary  for  the  fuel  to  be  injected 
into  the  heated  air  for  its  ignition  and  combustion  to  take  place. 

In  his  theoretical  discussion  of  the  subject,  Mr.  Diesel  laid 
down  four  conditions  as  essential  to  the  realization  of  the  highest 
economy : 

First,  that  the  combustion  temperature  must  be  attained  not 
by  the  combustion,  and  during  the  same,  but  before,  and  inde- 
pendent of  it,  by  the  compression  of  pure  air. 

Second,  that  this  is  best  accomplished  by  deviating  from  the 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    363 

pure  Carnot  cycle  to  the  extent  of  combining  two  of  the  stages 
of  the  cycle,  and  directly  compressing  the  air  adiabatically,  instead 
of  first  isothermally  from  two  to  four  atmospheres,  and  then 
adiabatically  to  thirty  or  forty  fold. 

Third,  that  the  fuel  be  introduced  gradually  into  the  com- 
pressed air,  and  burned  with  little  or  no  increase  in  temperature 
during  the  period  of  combustion. 


FIG.  333. — First  American  type,  Diesel  motor,  30  horse-power 

Fourth,  that  a  considerable  surplus  of  air  be  present. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  conditions  that  a  motor  to  meet 
them,  although  operating  upon  the  so-called  "four-cycle"  principle, 
must  differ  essentially  from  engines  of  the  Otto  type,  and  it  was 
to  realize  these  conditions  that  the  Diesel  motor  was  designed. 

In  general  construction  it  resembles  the  design  of  a  vertical 


364  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

steam-engine,  except  that  all  parts  are  built  to  stand  the  high 
pressure  employed. 

In  the  Diesel  engine,  compression  is  entirely  independent  of 
the  quality  of  the  fuel,  for  the  simple  reason  that  no  fuel  is  intro- 
duced until  it  is  wanted  to  ignite.  Pure  air  alone  is  compressed, 
and  therefore  the  intensity  of  compression  is  limited  only  by  two 
factors — the  ability  of  the  mechanical  construction  to  withstand 
the  stresses,  and  the  thermal  possibilities  involved.  The  high  com- 
pression produces  a  temperature  sufficient  to  cause  ignition  of  the 
fuel,  and  this  ignition  takes  place  as  soon  as  the  fuel  is  introduced 
to  the  heated  atmosphere  in  which  it  burns. 

The  working  cycle  is  as  follows : 

On  one  down-stroke  the  main  cylinder  is  completely  filled  with 
pure  air,  the  next  up-stroke  compresses  this  to  about  thirty-five 
atmospheres,  creating  a  temperature  more  than  sufficient  to  ignite 
the  fuel.  At  the  beginning  of  the  next  down-stroke  the  fuel- 
valve  opens,  and  the  petroleum,  atomized  by  passing  through  a 
spool  of  fine  wire  netting,  is  injected  during  a  predetermined  part 
of  the  stroke  into  this  red-hot  air,  resulting  in  combustion  controlled 
as  to  pressure  and  temperature.  This  injection  is  made  possible  by 
the  air  in  the  star  ting- tank,  which  is  kept  by  the  small  air-pump 
at  a  pressure  some  five  or  ten  atmospheres  greater  than  that  in  the 
main  cylinder.  A  small  quantity  of  this  air  enters  with  the  fuel- 
charge,  which  it  atomizes  as  described.  When  the  motor  is  run- 
ning at  full  load,  a  very  small  quantity  of  injected  air  suffices,  and 
the  pressure  in  the  air-tank  steadily  rises.  At  half  load,  with  less 
fuel  injected,  more  air  passes  in.  For  this  reason,  the  starting- 
tank  is  made  large  enough  to  equalize  these  differences,  and  a 
small  safety-valve  is  provided  on  the  air-pump. 

The  petroleum  is  pumped  into  the  fuel-valve  casing  by  a  small 
oil-pump  bolted  to  the  base-plate.  This  pump  is  arranged  to  pump 
a  fixed  maximum  quantity  of  petroleum.  A  by-pass  is  provided 
so  that  this  whole  quantity,  or  any  portion  of  it,  can  be  returned  to 
the  supply-tank.  The  governor  controls  the  action  of  this  by- 
pass valve,  closing  it  just  long  enough  to  compel  the  exact  quantity 
of  the  fuel  required  to  pass  into  the  fuel-valve  casing.  The  full 
charge  of  air  being  always  supplied  for  complete  combustion,  it 
matters  not  whether  the  governor  permits  one  or  fifty  drops  of 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    365 

petroleum  to  enter  the  working  cylinder  at  each  motor-stroke, 
the  combustion  is  always  complete.  To  stop  the  motor  it  is 
only  necessary  to  close  the  valve  which  admits  the  petroleum 
into  the  fuel-valve  casing.  The  valve-gear  consists  of  a  series 


FIG.  334. — Three-cylinder  Diesel  motor,  225  horse-power. 

of  cams  placed  on  a  shaft  journaled  on  brackets  cast  on   the 
cylinder. 

The  highest  efficiency  indicated  has  been  found  to  be  thirty- 
seven  per  cent,  at  full  load  and  forty-one  per  cent,  at  half  load, 
with  a  brake  efficiency  at  full  load  of  twenty-seven  per  cent,  and  at 
half  load  nineteen  per  cent.  These  high  efficiencies  are  probably 


366 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


due  to  perfect  combustion  under  high  pressure,  which  is  an  essential 
feature  of  this  motor. 

As  a  machine,  the  Diesel  engine  may  be  fully  as  frictionless 
as  a  steam-engine,  and  recent  tests  of  a  Diesel  engine  have  shown 
that  this  is  the  case.  It  is  also  found  that  an  indicated  horse-power 
hour  can  be  got  for  about  0.32  pound  of  crude  oil  with  a  calorific 
capacity  of  about  19,000  B.  T.  u.,  and  this  points  to  a  very  efficient 


FIG.  335. — The  crude-oil  generator. 

utilization  of  the  heat-value  of  the  fuel.  This  high  efficiency  is  a 
result  due  largely  to  the  high  compression  which  is  possible  only 
with  the  Diesel  system  of  fuel  admission.  It  is  also  partly  due  to 
diminished  friction  and  diminished  jacket  losses. 

The  future  improvement  of  internal-combustion  engines  lies 
so  much  along  the  lines  followed  by  Diesel  that  this  motor  may  be 
studied  to  good  advantage,  for  its  system  of  compression  removes 


KEROSENE,   DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    367 

the  most  serious  limitations  of  the  ordinary  motor,  and  in  weight  of 
combustible  per  unit  of  energy  output  its  record  is  far  ahead  of 
any  other  motor. 

The  offices  of  the  Diesel  Motor  Company  of  America  are  at 
No.  11  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

In  Fig.  335,  and  following,  we  illustrate  one  of  the  later  devices 
for  generating  the  cheapest  of  power  fuels  yet  obtained  from  fluids 


FIG.  336. — Outside  view  of  generator. 

or  their  vapors.  Crude  petroleum  has  become  directly  subservient 
to  the  requirement  for  power-fuel  in  explosive  motors  by  an  evapo- 
rative process  that  utilizes  all  its  available  properties  and  at  the 
same  time  allows  the  waste  tar  products  to  be  discharged,  and  also 
of  the  thorough  cleaning  of  the  evaporating  surface  when  required. 
.The  generator  consists  of  a  chamber  of  two  compartments  separated 
diagonally  by  a  partition  on  which  projects  a  series  of  ribs  that 
causes  the  oil  to  flow  in  a  zig-zag  course  down  the  surface  heated 
by  the  exhaust  through  the  chamber  beneatn. 


• 

0) 

'o 

I 

1 

t>l 

Si 

2 
fa 


368 


KEROSENE,  DISTILLATE,  AND  PETROLEUM-OIL  MOTORS    369 

The  crude  oil  is  fed  at  the  top,  as  shown  in  the  cuts;  the 
vapor  is  drawn  to  the  motor  through  the  pipe  and  small  chamber 
around  the  exhaust-pipe  as  shown.  A  three-way  cock  regulates 
the  quantity  of  the  exhaust  required  for  evaporative  effect  in  the 
generator. 


FIG.  338. — Portable  oil-motor  sa wing-rig. 

A  small  injection  of  gasoline  into  the  air-pipe  at  the  side  of  the 
cylinder  is  used  for  starting.  When  the  generator  is  warmed  up 
the  crude  oil  is  turned  on.  The  governor  regulates  the  mixture- 
charge. 

This  type  of  oil-gas  generator  is  made  by  the  Samson  Iron 
Works,  Stockton,  Cal.,  and  applied  to  their  stationary  and  port- 
able engines. 

Traction  engines  for  logging,  road  work,  and  portable  wheel 
rigs  for  power  for  all  kinds  of  agricultural  work  are  largely  in  use 
in  the  Western  States. 

The  Best  Mfg.  Co.,  San  Leandro,  Cal.,  also  make  a  crude-oil 
converter  for  their  oil-motors,  for  logging,  road,  and  agricultural 
work. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

PRODUCER-GAS    AND    ITS   PRODUCTION 

THE  theory  of  the  formation  of  this  gas  is  that,  by  limiting  the 
amount  of  air  admitted  to  the  fire,  complete  combustion  of  the  coal 
is  not  permitted  and  the  supply  of  oxygen  being  insufficient,  carbon 
monoxide,  CO,  is  formed  instead  of  carbon  dioxide,  C02,  while  the 
steam  formed  in  the  vaporizer  is  led  back  under  the  grate  and  breaks 
up  on  striking  the  incandescent  fuel,  giving  free  hydrogen  and  car- 
bon monoxide,  the  carbon  monoxide  and  the  hydrogen  forming  the 
power-gas  for  the  engine. 

The  average  gas,  with  a  good  grade  of  anthracite,  should  have  a 
heat  value  of  130  to  140  British  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot,  and 
the  constituents  by  volume  as  follows: 

Carbon  dioxide,  C02 6  % 

Carbon  monoxide,  CO 24  % 

Hydrogen,  H 15  % 

Nitrogen,  N 55  % 

Hydrocarbon,  CH4 trace 

Oxygen,  0 trace 

The  actual  combustion  in  the  producer  forms,  at  the  grate,  car- 
bon dioxide,  which  on  passing  up  through  the  glowing  coal  above 
the  grate  is  robbed  of  one  atom  of  oxygen  to  supply  the  coal  above, 
which  is  getting  insufficient  air,  and  becomes  in  great  part  CO.  The 
steam,  H20,  which  is  admitted  under  the  grate,  on  encountering  the 
glowing  mass  of  coal  is  broken  up  into  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The 
hydrogen  passes  through  the  producer  as  a  free  gas,  while  the  oxygen 
unites  with  the  coal  to  form  CO. 

Injection  of  steam  under  the  grate  serves  four  purposes: 

First.     It  gives  the  hydrogen  for  the  actual  power-gas. 

Second.  It  furnishes  oxygen  to  the  fire  on  breaking  up  and 
370 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION  371 

gives  greater  freedom  from  clinkers  due  to  more  complete  combus- 
tion. 

Third.  It  keeps  the  grate  cool  and  prevents  the  burning  out  of 
grate-bars. 

Fourth.  It  is  made  by  the  heat  of  the  gas  passing  from  the  gen- 
erator, utilizing  this  heat  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted,  and 
bringing  the  gas  to  more  nearly  the  temperature  required  at  the 
engine,  where  it  must  be  cool. 

Should  the  apparatus  be  of  faulty  design  and  more  steam  be 
admitted  than  the  fire  can  break  up,  the  effect  will  be  a  deadening 
of  the  fire  and  the  diminution  of  the  gas  formed  and  in  the  end  a 
complete  shutting  down.  On  the  other  hand,  if  an  insufficient 
amount  of  steam  is  provided,  the  grates  will  burn  out  rapidly  and 
the  gas,  through  a  lack  of  hydrogen,  will  be  lacking  in  power. 

When  anthracite  is  used,  the  amount  of  water  transformed 
should  be  from  0.8  to  1.2  the  weight  of  the  coal. 

In  the  cheaper  forms  of  apparatus  the  cleaner  is  often  omitted, 
but  an  examination  of  the  pipes  on  such  a  plant  after  a  month's  use 
will  conclusively  prove  its  necessity.  Where  water  is  an  important 
factor,  the  scrubber  may  be  run  hot  and  less  water  used,  but  it  will 
be  done  at  the  expense  of  a  cleaner  which  will  be  forced  to  remove  a 
greater  percentage  of  dust  carried  through  to  it  by  the  uncondensed 
vapor,  so  that  the  sawdust  and  shavings  in  the  cleaner  will  require 
more  frequent  renewal.  Wherever  necessary  a  cooling  system  can 
be  installed  and  the  water  reused  after  slight  filtration. 

As  an  example  of  the  efficiency  with  which  the  gas  is  cleaned  and 
dried,  an  instance  may  be  cited  of  an  installation  of  Julius  Pintsch, 
at  Heusy,  in  Belgium,  which  was  run  for  an  entire  year  without  any 
cleaning  of  either  engine  or  gas-apparatus;  the  deposit  of  foreign 
matter  found  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  inconsequential. 

The  superiority  of  the  suction  system  over  the  pressure  type 
of  gas-producers  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated.  Originally 
many  objections  were  raised  to  the  suction  type,  and  the  idea  of 
having  the  engine  draw  in  its  charge  of  gas,  thereby  making  the  draft 
for  the  fire,  was  considered  impractical.  The  point  was  raised  that 
the  gas,  being  at  less  than  atmospheric  pressure,  would  interfere  with 
the  satisfactory  working  of  the  engine.  If  it  were  impossible  to 
regulate  the  admission  of  the  air  with  the  pressure  of  the  gas  this 


372  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

objection  would  hold  true,  but  this  is  taken  care  of  by  providing  a 
separate  air-inlet  on  the  engine  which  allows  the  formation  of  a 
suitable  mixture  in  all  cases. 

Suction  gas-plants  are  simpler  and  require  less  room  than  pres- 
sure plants  They  are  more  economical  of  fuel  and  require  less 
attention.  They  require  no  separate  steam-boilers  or  large  gas- 
holders and  there  is  no  chance  for  gas  to  escape  into  any  of  the 
rooms  of  the  building  as  the  whole  apparatus  is  always  under  slightly 
less  than  atmospheric  pressure,  and  any  leakage  would  be  of  air  into 
the  apparatus  instead  of  gas  out.  A  leakage  sufficient  to  bring 
about  a  stoppage  would  have  to  be  very  large  and  could  not  occur 
except  through  some  extraordinary  accident. 

In  the  pressure  type  the  air  necessary  to  maintain  the  fire  in  the 
gas-generator  enters  the  bed  of  fuel  under  pressure,  caused  by  a 
steam-jet,  blower,  fan  or  similar  means.  Hence  the  gas  passes 
through  the  apparatus  and  reaches  the  engine  under  a  pressure  of 
two  or  three  inches  of  water. 

In  the  suction  type  the  air  required  for  generating  gas  is  drawn 
through  the  bed  of  fuel  and  the  resulting  gas  is  then  drawn  through 
the  cooling  and  cleansing  apparatus  by  the  sucking  action  or  partial 
vacuum  created  by  the  engine-piston. 

The  pressure  system  has  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  use  a 
greater  variety  and  an  inferior  quality  of  fuel  than  the  suction  type. 

Anthracite  or  bituminous  coals,  lignite,  wood,  peat,  tan-bark, 
coke,  and  charcoal  may  be  successfully  gassified  in  the  pressure-type 
producer.  It  can  also  work  more  satisfactorily  when  supplying 
gas  to  a  number  of  engines  from  a  central  producer  plant. 

In  the  suction  type  the  character  and  heat  value  of  the  generated 
gas  are  essentially  the  same  as  from  a  pressure  type  of  plant.  It  is 
of  the  first  importance  that  good  coal  be  selected,  if  undue  care  and 
interrupted  operation  are  to  be  avoided.  -It  is  best  also  to  install  an 
apparatus  of  ample  capacity  for  the  work  desired.  The  overrated 
power  of  these  installations  has  oftentimes  caused  needless  annoy- 
ance and  expense,  besides  condemning  an  apparatus  of  much  merit 
when  intelligently  proportioned  and  rated. 

To  date,  the  use  of  bituminous  coal  is  confined  to  large  units. 
In  order  to  successfully  operate  a  gas-engine,  the  tar  must  be  re- 
moved, which  necessitates  either  an  elaborate  system  of  scrubbers 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION  373 

and  cleaners,  or  the  combustion  of  the  tar  in  the  producer  itself. 
Working  on  the  latter  principle,  Julius  Pintsch  has  in  operation 
plants  for  both  lignite  and  bituminous  coal,  a  plant  of  400  horse- 
power working  admirably  on  the  latter  fuel  with  the  very  low  con- 
sumption of  ten  ounces  per  brake  horse-power  hour.  With  bitu- 
minous coal  at  $3.00  a  ton,  this  brings  the  cost  per  horse-power 
hour  down  to  ^-cent  per  horse-power  hour,  which,  barring  water- 
power  and  natural  gas,  may  be  said  to  be  the  cheapest  form  of 
power  yet  known. 

COKE-OVEN    GAS 

The  coke  industry  affords  an  important  field  for  gas-power. 
Coke  by  itself  represents  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  best  value  of  the 
coal  coked.  The  remaining  25  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary 
bee-hive  oven  is  discharged  into  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of 
products  of  combustion.  The  gaseous  distillate  is  practically  the 
same  as  ordinary  retort  coal-gas  and  as  such  forms  a  most  excellent 
fuel  for  power  purposes. 

In  the  process  of  coking  coal  in  closed  retorts  or  ovens,  the  gas 
obtained  is  obviously  similar  to  the  coal-gas  manufactured  for  illu- 
minating purposes,  and  contains  an  average  of  39  per  cent,  of  hydro- 
gen, 45  per  cent,  of  hydrocarbons,  5  per  cent,  of  carbon  monoxide, 
and  3  per  cent,  of  carbon  dioxides. 

For  this  gas,  the  gross  heat  value  is  679  British  thermal  units  per 
cubic  foot  and  the  available  heat  value  560  thermal  units.  The 
gas  leaves  the  retorts  at  a  high  temperature  and  carrying  a  consider- 
able burden  of  impurities,  must  be  cooled  and  purified  before  it 
is  fit  for  use  in  an  engine-cylinder.  Its  high  hydrogen  contents 
makes  it  somewhat  sensitive  and  violent;  but  with  reasonably  care- 
ful adjustment  and  operation  it  constitutes  a  good  fuel  for  use  in  a 
gas-engine. 

In  coking  one  ton  of  average  coking-coal  in  a  retort  there  are 
generated  from  8,000  to  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  carrying  from  60 
to  100  pounds  of  tar  and  10  to  25  pounds  of  ammonium  sulphate. 
The  tar  and  sulphate  must  be  extracted  and  are  marketable — their 
sale  value  more  than  covering  the  cost  of  their  extraction;  but  gen- 
erally the  gas  carries  an  excess  of  sulphur  and  always  some  dust, 
and  the  amount  of  these  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 


374  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

Of  the  total  volume  of  gas  only  about  one-half  is  required  for 
carrying  on  the  coking  process;  a  balance  of  4,000  to  5,000  cubic 
feet  remains  available  for  other  purposes,  such  as  illumination 
or  power-generation.  In  other  words,  in  the  coking  of  one  ton  of 
coal  there  become  available,  and  are  only  too  frequently  wasted, 
about  2,500,000  thermal  units,  sufficient  to  develop  in  gas-engines 
at  least  205  effective  horse-power  hours.  Thus  for  every  11  pounds 
of  coal  coked  per  hour,  one  effective  horse-power  is  available  as  a 
by-product. 

In  the  Connellsville  district  about  300,000  tons  of  coal  are  coked 
per  week.  The  surplus  gas  from  this  coal  would  develop  366,000 
effective  horse-power  continuously. 

The  use  of  coke-oven  gas  is  one  of  the  results  of  the  perfection 
of  the  by-product  coke-oven,  although  the  primary  object  of  this 
form  of  oven  was  perhaps  as  much  for  the  recovery  of  tar  and  am- 
monia as  for  the  waste  gases.  About  half  of  the  gases  are,  however, 
used  as  fuel  for  heating  the  ovens  themselves  for  the  distillation  of 
the  coal  charges  and  the  recovery  of  the  gas  for  this  purpose  was 
undoubtedly  the  primary  object  sought. 

But  since  only  a  portion  of  the  gases  voided  are  necessary  for 
heating  the  ovens,  the  remainder  are  available  for  other  uses,  and 
while  they  have  been  used  as  fuel  in  boilers,  it  has  been  found  that 
for  the  production  of  power  a  most  efficient  use  has  been  to  burn 
them,  after  purification,  in  the  cylinder  of  a  gas-engine. 

In  showing  the  adaptability  of  the  waste  gases  of  coke-ovens 
in  gas-engines,  and  also  the  magnitude  of  the  power  available,  it 
is  preferable  to  sketch  briefly  the  method  by  which  they  are  gen- 
erated, and  so  exhibit  their  qualities  and  qualifications  for  this 
work. 

The  possibility  of  utilizing  this  source  of  power  may  be  said  to 
be  due  to  the  development  to  perfection  of  the  by-product  coke- 
oven,  though  perhaps  the  contemporaneous  development  of  the 
gas-engine  itself  should  be  counted  as  an  equal  factor.  It  may  not 
be  known  to  all  that  the  operation  of  coking  coal  consists  simply  in 
heating  it,  out  of  the  presence  of  the  atmosphere,  so  that  the  volatile 
matter  is  distilled  off,  leaving  almost  pure  carbon  or  coke  as  the  re- 
sidual product.  The  coal  is  delivered  to  each  oven  from  a  travelling 
larry,  which  runs  over  the  top,  through  spouts,  thus  delivering  the 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION  375 

fuel  charge  comparatively  level  on  top  and  nearly  filling  the  oven. 
The  heat  is  supplied  to  the  ovens  by  the  combustion  of  gas  beneath 
them,  the  products  of  combustion  passing  up  through  flues  in  the 
brick  work  between  each  oven.  The  air  used  in  burning  the  gas  is 
brought  from  the  outside  through  a  regenerator  placed  under  the 
ovens,  whereby  it  becomes  heated  to  a  high  temperature,  thus  mak- 
ing the  temperature  of  combustion  correspondingly  higher.  The 
burned  gas,  after  passing  through  the  flues  between  the  ovens,  is  led 
through  the  regenerator.  The  valve  arrangement  allows  of  a  trans- 
position of  air  and  burned  gas  in  the  regenerators,  so  that  one  is 
being  heated  by  burned  gas  while  the  other  is  giving  up  its  heat  to 
the  air  used  in  the  combustion. 

Coke-oven  gas  is  largely  in  use  in  England,  Germany,  and 
Belgium,  and  although  on  limited  trials  only  in  the  United  States, 
its  future  extension  is  apparent,  and  pipe-line  extensions  may 
build  up  large  industries  within  reasonable  distances  from  the 
coke-producing  centres. 

BLAST-FURNACE     GAS 

The  gases  from  blast-furnaces,  heretofore  used  under  boilers 
for  generating  steam  for  power  to  drive  the  blowing-engines  of  the 
furnaces,  is  now  coming  into  use  for  a  more  direct  application  of  its 
power  by  its  use  in  the  cylinders  of  the  blowing-engines. 

Its  limitation  to  the  iron-making  districts  bars  it  from  general 
use,  but  the  surplus  power  above  the  requirement  of  the  furnace, 
when  used  in  a  gas-engine  for  the  furnace-blast,  hot  stoves,  etc., 
makes  it  an  available  means  of  profit  for  distribution  to  a  neighbor- 
hood. The  approximate  analysis  of  blast-furnace  gas  is  as  follows: 

Hydrogen,  H 5.2  % 

Carbon- monoxide,  CO 26.8  % 

Marsh  gas,  CH4 1.6  % 

Carbon  dioxide,  C02 8.2  % 

Oxygen,  0 ...       .2% 

Nitrogen,  N 58.0  % 


100.0 
Heating  value  106  British  thermal  units,  and  from  80  to  120 


376  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

cubic  feet  is  required  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  air  per  horse- 
power per  hour. 

Blast-furnace  gas  is  found  by  experience  to  make  an  excellent 
power-gas,  as  it  is  not  "snappy,"  therefore  permitting  of  compara- 
tively high  compression  and  consequently  high  efficiency.  The 
difficulties  in  cleaning  have  apparently  been  overcome  and  several 
American  engine-builders  are  prepared  to  meet  the  demand  for 
heavy-duty  engines  of  several  thousand  horse-power  capacity. 
Every  iron  and  steel  works  operating  a  blast-furnace  establishment 
should  thus  become  a  producer  of  energy  for  its  own  and  outside 
consumption,  instead  of  an  augmenter  of  the  smoke  nuisance. 

It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  blast-furnace  gas  must  be 
cleaned  before  use  in  the  gas-engines;  if  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  the  cleaning  process  at  the  same  time  reduces  its  temperature 
and  thus  increases  its  density,  thereby  increasing  the  power  avail- 
able from  a  cylinder  of  given  dimensions.  Whether  cleaned  by 
transmission  through  great  length  of  pipe  at  low  velocity,  or  by 
contact  with  sprays  or  surfaces  of  water,  the  temperature  is  lowered. 
Cooling  and  cleaning  by  the  dry  or  transmission  method  is  not  sat- 
isfactory, and  becomes  very  costly  if  a  temperature  below  120° 
F.  is  desired.  Nor  do  conditions  of  velocity,  satisfactory  for  cool- 
ing, permit  the  settling  of  the  dust,  and  the  finest  particles,  when 
dry,  require  practically  absolute  rest,  which  is,  of  course,  impossible. 
Water  cooling  and  washing  is  now  generally  employed. 

For  the  gas  delivered  at  the  top  of  a  blast-furnace,  consisting 
of  the  products  of  combustion  and  partial  combustion  of  coke, 
and  the  decomposed  moisture  and  volatile  contents  of  the  charge, 
the  average  volumetric  composition  is: 

Hydrogen ......     2 .25  % 

Hydrocarbons .  25  % 

Carbon  monoxide : 24 . 5    % 

Carbon  dioxide 12  % 

Nitrogen 62 .       % 

Gross  heat  for  this  gas  is  92.5  British  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot 
and  available  heat  86  heat  units. 

This  gas  leaves  the  furnace  top  at  a  temperature  of  about  400° 
F.  and  carrying  a  considerable  burden  of  dust  and  moisture.  It 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION  377 

must  be  cooled,  cleaned,  and  dried  before  it  is  in  a  condition  fit 
for  use  in  an  engine  cylinder.  The  heat  value  of  blast-furnace  gas 
lies  chiefly  in  its  carbon  monoxide,  the  proportion  of  hydrogen  being 
very  low;  the  gas  is  therefore  neither  sensitive  nor  violent,  will 
safely  permit  a  high  compression,  and  as  a  result  its  ignition  is  sure 
and  its  efficiency  high  in  spite  of  its  low  heat  value. 

For  each  ton  pig-iron  output,  the  average  blast-furnace  delivers 
about  10,500  pounds  of  gas  at  its  top.  In  other  words,  the  gas  de- 
livered by  a  blast-furnace  weighs  4.7  times  as  much  as  the  pig-iron 
it  produces.  The  volume  of  such  gas  at  62°  Fah.  and  30 
inches  of  mercury,  equivalent  to  a  weight  of  10,500  pounds,  is  131,- 
000  cubic  feet.  Thus,  per  ton  of  pig-iron  produced,  there  are  de- 
livered by  the  furnace  11,266,000  net  thermal  units. 

A  portion  of  this  gas  is  utilized  to  heat  the  blast  for  the  furnace 
to  a  temperature  of  about  1,200°  Fah.,  but  a  surplus  of  76,000 
to  77,000  cubic  feet,  or,  say,  6,580,000  heat  units  per  ton  of  pig  may 
be  safely  figured  upon. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  gas,  as  it  leaves  the  blast-furnace  top,  is 
hot,  dirty,  and  wet,  and  must  be  cooled,  cleaned,  and  dried.  A 
typical  mode  of  procedure  is  to  pass  the  entire  volume  of  gas 
through  a  dust-catcher,  the  area  of  which  is  proportioned  so  that 
the  gas  travels  at  a  low  velocity.  In  this  dust-catcher  the  major 
portion  of  the  heavy  dust  settles  out,  and  the  gas  temperature  is 
reduced  by  radiation.  As  a  rule,  the  gas  passes  directly  from  here 
to  the  stoves  and  boilers.  If  the  gas-mains  are  long  and  of  ample 
diameter,  a  further  considerable  quantity  of  dust  settles  out  in  them, 
and  where  water  is  scarce  and  space  available,  a  multiplication  of 
dry-dust  catchers  or  long,  large  mains  with  dust-pockets  affords  an 
efficient  means  at  low  operating  cost  for  all  but  the  final  drying  and 
cleaning. 

But  where  an  ample  supply  of  cold  water  can  be  obtained,  the 
cooling  and  cleaning  of  the  gas  becomes  simpler  and  all  the  gas— 
whether  for  stoves,  boilers,  or  gas-engines — should  be  washed  by 
passing  either  through  vertical  tanks  or  horizontal  pipes  against  fine 
sprays  of  water.  The  gas  for  gas-engines  must  be  still  further 
cleaned  and  dried,  and  various  means  can  be  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose: coke-scrubbers  with  steam-jets,  lattice- work  with  water-cur- 
tains, or  centrifugals  with  water-injection,  these  to  be  followed  by 


378  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

filters  consisting  of  layers  of  excelsior  or  sawdust,  or  followed  by 
water-separators. 

Provision  of  a  gas-holder  is  always  desirable,  but  its  capacity 
per  gas-engine  horse-power  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  blast-furnace 
plant — the  greater  the  number  of  furnaces,  the  smaller  may  be  the 
gas-holder.  A  satisfactory  gas-cleaning  installation  in  a  plant 
whose  space  will  not  permit  more  than  a  fractional  cooling  by  direct 
radiation,  consists  of  vertical  tanks  set  in  water-seal  catch-basins 
followed  by  centrifugals  with  water-injection. 

PRODUCER-GAS   FOR   MARINE    PROPULSION 

Experiments  are  in  progress  for  utilizing  producer-gas  for  launch, 
yacht,  and  ship  service,  not  only  for  economy  over  fluid  fuels  now  in 
use,  but  for  safety  from  the  occasional  disasters  due  to  the  use  of 
the  highly  volatile  fluids.  Trials  of  marine  engines  driven  by  pro- 
ducer-gas now  being  made  in  Germany  by  Mr.  Capitaine,  and  in 
England  by  Thornicroft  and  Company  and  Beardmore  and  Com- 
pany, which  may  make  a  further  and  more  extended  use  of  the  ex- 
plosive motor  for  marine  propulsion. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  additional  weight  of  engine,  producer-plant, 
and  coal  will  be  but  slightly  increased  beyond  the  present  equipment 
of  marine  motors  of  the  explosive  type  and  far  less  than  for  steam- 
driven  motors. 

PRODUCER-GAS   GENERATORS 

This  gas,  like  its  congeners — water-gas,  Dowson  gas,  suction  or 
aspirated  gas,  and  Mond  gas— is  made  by  distilling  by  heat  and 
steam  or  air,  bituminous  or  anthracite  coal  in  a  closed  furnace,  using 
the  heat  generated  by  their  partial  combustion  for  producing  the 
chemical  reaction  resulting  in  a  permanent  gas  of  varying  constitu- 
ents due  to  the  different  methods  of  operating  the  generating  fur- 
naces. 

In  Fig.  339  is  illustrated  a  producer-gas  generator  in  which  A  is 
a  swing  or  lift-door  for  feeding  coke,  anthracite,  or  bituminous  coal 
to  the  furnace  B,  and  for  blowing  up.  C,  fire-brick  walls  of  the  fur- 
nace. E,  air-inlet  for  heating  the  furnace  of  the  generator.  F  and 
G,  gas  blow-off  pipe,  interchangeable  to  reverse  the  gas-blow.  J, 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION 


379 


valve  that  automatically  closes  when  A  is  opened.  L,  L,  steam-pipes 
for  alternating  the  steam-blow.  H,  superheating  coil  for  heating  the 
steam  by  the  hot  gases  passing  to  the  scrubber  M.  N,  sprinkler.  K, 
wheel  and  drum  for  simultaneously  opening  and  closing  the  valves, 
J  and  G,  and  the  blast-door  A.  The  initial  firing  produces  C02 
with  air  alone,  and  an  addition  of  hydrogen  when  steam  is  blown 
alternating  with  air.  The  air-blast  raises  the  heat  of  the  furnace  to 
a  high  temperature ;  when  the  air  is  shut  off  and  steam  turned  into 
the  furnace,  it  is  forced  into  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  hot  coal 


SCRUBBER          SUPERHEATER 


FIG.  339.  —  Gas  producer. 


FIG.  340. — Gas  generator. 


and  becomes  dissociated,  the  oxygen  uniting  with  the  carbon, 
forming  carbonic  monoxide  CO,  setting  hydrogen  free.  This 
product  is  technically  termed  water-gas.  While  the  non-use  of 
steam  or  the  mixed  use  of  steam  and  air  in  the  after-blow  produces 
the  various  grades  of  gases  and  their  respective  heat  values,  all  pro- 
ducer-gases, but  termed  technically  water-gas,  semi  water-gas, 
Mond  gas,  and  suction  or  insp5rator-gas,  are  later  detailed  as  to 
analysis  and  heat  value.  Fig.  340  illustrates  a  simple  gas-gener- 
ator of  the  Lowe  type,  an  iron  cylinder  lined  with  fire-brick.  Air 
is  blown  in  at  the  bottom  for  heating  the  coal  or  coke.  Then  steam 
is  blown  in  at  the  top,  passing  through  the  hot  fuel,  and  discharged 
at  the  bottom  as  water-gas.  Fuel  is  fed  through  the  hopper  at  the 
top.  By  reversing  the  blowing  by  steam  and  air,  producer-gas 


380 


GAS,  GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINES 


is  made  and  discharged  through  the  side  pipe  at  the  right.     This 
simple  generator  is  only  suitable  for  anthracite  or  coke-fuel. 

In  Fig.  341  is  illustrated  a  gas  and  steam  generator  of  Belgian 
design.  A  magazine-furnace  with  a  double-valve  hopper  for 
charging  the  magazine.  The  steam-generator  consists  of  a  number 
of  drop-tubes  closed  at  the  bottom,  each  with  a  central  water-feed 
tube  of  smaller  size.  The  drop-tubes  are  screwed  into  the  bottom 
plate  of  the  steam  chamber,  which  has  a  partition  to  separate  the 


FIG.  341. — Gas  and  steam  generator. 

water-inlet  from  the  steam  compartment,  from  which  the  steam  is 
drawn  through  the  small  pipe  to  the  ash-pit  beneath  the  grate. 
The  blower  at  the  right  is  for  starting  the  fire.  The  air  is  drawn 
in  for  continuing  the  combustion  through  the  pipe  K,  by  the  suction 
of  the  motor. 

Fig.  342  represents  a  very  complete  producer-gas  generator  of 
German  type,  in  which  steam  is  generated  in  a  double-shell  boiler 
at  the  left  in  the  cut,  superheated  in  a  coil  over  the  fire,  and  then 
passed  through  the  combined  air  and  steam  inlet  to  the  converter, 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND   ITS  PRODUCTION 


381 


the  incoming  air  being  heated  in  the  jacket  of  the  outgoing  gas- 
pipe.  The  blower  is  not  shown.  To  the  right  of  the  converter  is 
a  tar-box  and  waste-siphon. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  scrubber,  a  lime-purifier  is  used  to  elim- 
inate any  sulphurous  gases  passing  the  scrubber. 

In  Fig.  343  is  illustrated  the  German  producer-gas  plant  of  Julius 
Pintsch. 

This  producer  was  simple  in  construction  and  operation,  required 
little  attention,  and  gave  a  brake  horse-power  hour  in  small  units 
on  one  pound  of  Belgium  anthracite.  Four  years'  practical  experi- 


FIG.  342. — Purified  producer-gas  plant. 

ence  with  this  plant  brought  many  improvements  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  present  Pintsch  suction  gas-plant  is  as  follows :  In  Fig. 
343,  A  is  a  blower,  furnishing  draught  for  starting  the  fire  and  raising 
the  heat  in  the  generator  to  the  proper  temperature  for  the  produc- 
tion of  gas;  B,  the  generator,  equipped  with  a  grate  on  which  the 
coal  is  burned,  a  hopper  H,  which  allows  charging  during  operation, 
a  window-valve  for  inspection  of  the  fire,  and  fire-doors  for  poking 
down;  C  is  a  vaporizer  fitted  with  a  small  tubular  boiler  for  the  gen- 
eration of  steam,  and  a  relief-pipe  or  chimney  for  use  when  the  engine 
is  not  running;  D,  a  scrubber  consisting  of  a  coke-tower  with  a  water- 
spray  for  washing  the  gas;  E,  a  cleaner  containing  wooden  trays 


382 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


covered  with  wood  shavings  or  sawdust  through  which  the  gas  is 
filtered,  giving  up  the  last  of  its  dirt  and  dust;  F,  a  governor  or 
pressure-equalizer  for  maintaining  a  steady  pressure  throughout 
the  apparatus. 

To  operate  the  plant,  a  fire  is  lighted  in  the  generator  and  a  small 
amount  of  coal  added,  the  blower  being  run  until  the  fire  is  burning 
strongly  with  the  relief-valve  R  open.  After  ten  to  fifteen  minutes 
blowing,  the  fire  is  sufficiently  hot  to  give  off  gas;  the  relief -valve  is 
then  closed  and  the  gas  allowed  to  pass  through  the  apparatus,  the 
blower  being  kept  running  at  slower  speed  until  the  gas  burns  freely 
at  a  test-cock  beside  the  engine.  The  engine  is  then  started,  the 


FIG.  343. — Pintsch  producer-gas  plant. 

blower  stopped,  and  the  formation  of  gas  becomes  automatic;  the 
suction-stroke  of  the  engine  furnishes  the  draft  through  the  fire. 

In  ordinary  practice,  the  fire  is  left  burning  overnight  with 
limited  draft  and  only  a  few  minutes'  blowing  is  required  to  brighten 
up  the  fire  in  the  morning.  The  generator  should  be  kept  full  of 
coal  and  the  fire  kept  clean  and  bright.  Since  the  apparatus  is 
always  under  a  slight  vacuum,  the  fire-doors  can  be  opened  at  any 
time  for  cleaning  out  the  fire. 

The  vaporizer  is  built  in  three  sections,  the  upper  being  simply  a 
chamber  connected  with  the  relief-pipe  or  chimney;  the  middle,  a 
small  tubular  boiler,  and  the  base  section  acting  as  a  cleaning-pot 
and  water-seal  when  the  engine  is  not  running.  By  the  passage  of 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION  383 

the  hot  gases  coming  from  the  generator  through  the  flues  of  the 
boiler,  the  gas  is  cooled  and  steam  is  generated  which  is  passed  back 
under  the  grate.  The  cleaning-pot  or  bottom  section  collects  the 
heaviest  dust  and  dirt  coming  over  with  the  gas.  By  the  admis- 
sion of  water  to  the  cleaning-pot  on  shutting  down,  the  rest  of 
the  apparatus  is  water-sealed  and  the  gas  therein  kept  intact  for 
starting  up  again. 

The  scrubber  should  never  feel  more  than  warm  to  the  hand, 
otherwise  steam  will  pass  through  it  to  the  apparatus  beyond,  car- 
rying with  it  a  considerably  greater  percentage  of  dust,  and  the  gas 
will  not  be  cool  when  it  reaches  the  engine.  The  gas  must  reach 
the  engine  cool  or  the  charge  taken  in  will  be  a  charge  of  expanded 
and  rarefied  gas  and  will  not  carry  sufficient  energy. 

In  the  cleaner,  the  gas  gives  up  the  last  of  its  dust  and  moisture 
and  emerges  cool,  clean,  and  dry. 

The  apparent  simplicity  of  the  suction  gas-producer  has  led  to 
the  introduction  of  plants  in  which  the  chemical  and  scientific  sides 
of  the  problem  have  been  entirely  disregarded.  Cheapness  of  first 
cost  has  been  sought  rather  than  economy  of  operation,  the  ar- 
rangements for  cleaning  the  gas  being  in  almost  every  case  insuffi- 
cient, so  that  the  whole  installation  requires  frequent  cleaning.  The 
dirt  thus  allowed  to  pass  through  with  the  gas  fouls  the  valves  and 
cylinder  of  the  engine,  causing  a  leaky  piston  and  rapid  deterioration 
of  the  moving  parts. 

In  Fig.  344  is  illustrated  a  suction  gas-plant  of  the  Crossley  type. 

Besides  producers  of  the  pressure  type,  for  use  with  either  an- 
thracite or  bituminous  coal,  Messrs.  Crossley  make  a  special  feature 
of  their  suction-gas  producer-plant,  which  consists  of  the  producer 
proper,  coke-scrubbers,  and  an  expansion-box.  The  construction  of 
the  principal  parts  is  shown  in  the  cross  section,  which  is  largely  self- 
explanatory;  the  engine  draws  air  and  steam  through  the  fuel  in  the 
producer,  generating  the  gas,  which  passes  through  the  scrubbers  on 
its  way  to  the  engine.  The  steam  is  raised  by  the  waste  heat  of  the 
producer  from  water  surrounding  the  bell  of  the  feeding  hopper, 
and  is  superheated  before  entering  the  furnace.  The  hopper  holds 
sufficient  fuel  to  last  for  four  hours  without  attention,  the  operation 
of  the  plant  being  automatic.  The  notable  features  of  this  producer 
plant  is  the  water-jacketed  magazine-bell  which  acts  as  the  steam- 


384 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


generator,  air  and  steam  mixing  chamber  at  the  top  of  the  generator  ? 
and  the  double-chambered  scrubber,  in  which  the  gas  and  water 
flow  in  one  direction,  depositing  the  ash,  tar,  and  dust  in  the  hy- 
draulic box,  while  the  contrary  currents  in  the  compartment  further 


FIG.  344. — Crossley  suction  gas-producer. 

clear  the  gas  from  sulphurous  gas  and  ammonia.  The  friction  of 
the  gas  is  also  partially  eliminated  by  passing  with  the  water  current 
through  one-half  of  the  length  of  an  equal  single  scrubber,  besides 
being  a  convenience  in  compactness  of  the  plant. 

It  is  claimed  that  there  is  considerable  economy  of  fuel  with  the 
statement  that  the  consumption  of  anthracite  at  full  load  is  from 
0.65  to  0.85  pound  per  brake  horse-power  hour,  and  of  water  1 
gallon  for  all  purposes.  The  plant  is  made  for  outputs  up  to  300 
brake  horse-power,  the  largest  size  occupying  a  space  of  21  feet  6 
inches  by  15  feet  by  19  feet  high. 

In  Fig.  345  is  illustrated  the  Mond  gas-generator,  which  is  briefly 
described  as  follows : 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION 


385 


The  cheapest  bituminous  slack  obtainable  is  mechanically  de- 
posited in  hoppers  above  the  producers.  From  this  it  is  discharged 
into  the  producer-bell,  where  the  heating  of  the  slack  takes  place, 
and  the  products  of  distillation  pass  down  into  the  hot  zone  of  fuel 
before  joining  the  bulk  of  the  gas  leaving  the  producer.  The  hot 
zone  destroys  the  tar  and  converts  it  into  a  fixed  gas,  and  pre- 
pares the  slack  for  descent  into  the  body  of  the  producer,  where  it 
is  acted  upon  by  an  air-blast  which  has  been  saturated  with  moisture 
and  water  superheated  before  contact  with  the  fuel.  The  hot  gas 
and  undecomposed  steam  leaving  the  producer  pass  first  through 
a  tubular  regenerator  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  incoming 
blast.  An  exchange  of  heat  takes  place,  and  the  blast  is  still  further 
heated  by  passing  down  the  annular  space  between  the  two  shells 


FIG.  345. — The  Mond  gas-generator. 

of  the  producer  on  its  way  to  the  fire-grate;  then  the  hot  products 
from  the  producer  are  further  passed  through  a  "washer,"  which 
is  a  large,  rectangular,  wrought-iron  chamber  with  side-lutes;  and 
here  they  meet  a  water-spray  thrown  up  by  revolving  dashers,  which 
have  blades  skimming  up  the  surface  of  the  water  contained  in 
the  washer.  The  intimate  contact  thus  secured  causes  the  steam 
and  gas  to  be  cooled  down  to  about  194°  Fah.,  and  by  the 
formation  of  more  steam  tending  to  saturate  the  gas  with  water- 


386 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


vapor  at  this  temperature,  then  passing  upward  through  a  lead- 
lined  tower,  filled  with  tile  to  present  a  large  surface,  the  producer- 
gas  meets  a  downward  flow  of  acid  liquor,  circulated  by  pumps, 
containing  sulphate  of  ammonia  with  about  four  per  cent,  excess  of 
free  sulphuric  acid. 

Combination  of  the  ammonia  of  the  gas  with  the  free  acid  takes 
place,  giving  still  more  sulphate  of  ammonia,  so  that,  to  make  the 
process  continuous,  some  sulphate  liquor  is  constantly  withdrawn 
from  circulation  and  evaporated  to  yield  solid  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
and  some  free  acid  is  constantly  added  to  the  liquor  circulating 


": -muttX 

FIG.  346. — Suction  or  aspirator  gas-plant. 

through  the  tower.  The  gas,  being  now  freed  of  its  ammonia,  is 
conducted  into  a  gas-cooling  tower,  where  it  meets  a  downward 
flow  of  cold  water,  thus  further  cooling  and  cleaning  it  before 
it  passes  to  the  various  furnaces  and  gas-engines  in  which  it 
is  used. 

Fig.  346  illustrates  a  suction  or  aspirator  gas-plant  and  connec- 
tion with  a  gas-engine  in  which  A  is  the  generator  proper,  where 
the  combustion  takes  place.  The  gas  produced  passes  into  the. 
evaporator  B,  the  interior  of  which  is  filled  with  small  vertical  tubes 
through  which  the  hot  gases  pass  while  water  trickles  over  their 
outer  surfaces,  cooling  the  gas  and  at  the  same  time  evaporating  the 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS  PRODUCTION  387 

water,  which,  mingling  with  the  air,  also  drawn  in  at  the  top,  is 
carried  into  the  generator  A.  The  evaporator  is  provided  with  an 
overflow  for  the  water  which  is  not  thus  evaporated. 

From  the  cooler,  or  evaporator,  the  gas  passes  to  the  scrubber  C, 
which  is  simply  a  shell  filled  with  coke  through  which  the  water 
passes  downward  against  the  ascending  current  of  gas,  the  water 
being  discharged  to  the  sewer  from  the  collecting  tank  at  the  bottom, 
while  the  gas  passes  to  the  receiver  E.  The  coke  and  the  water 
retain  not  only  the  entrained  dust,  but  the  ammonia  and  other  chem- 
ical impurities  of  the  gas. 

The  receiver  E  may  be  replaced  to  advantage  by  a  small  gas- 
holder with  water-seal  and  top  section  suspended  by  a  very  elastic 
spring,  to  neutralize  the  jumping  action  of  the  engine-piston. 

In  order  to  start  the  generator,  the  small  hand-blower  G  is  em- 
ployed, by  the  aid  of  which  sufficient  air  is  introduced  to  ignite  the 
bed  of  fuel.  The  gas  at  first  formed,  which  is  not  suitable  for  use  in 
the  engine,  is  allowed  to  escape  to  the  atmosphere  through  the  es- 
cape-pipe D.  Some  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  after  the  generator 
has  been  ignited,  the  pipe  D  may  be  closed  and  the  engine  started. 
The  aspiration  by  the  engine  itself  commences,  little  by  little  the 
normal  condition  is  established,  and  in  from  one-quarter  to  one-half 
an  hour  the  gas  becomes  sufficiently  rich  to  take  care  of  the  motor 
under  full  load. 

In  Fig.  347  we  illustrate  the  suction  gas-plant  as  built  by  Mr. 
Oscar  Nagel,  No.  90  Wall  Street,  New  York  City. 

The  suction  gas  producer-plant  consists  of  a  producer,  an  evap- 
orator, an  overflow  water-pot,  a  scrubber,  and  an  equalizer. 

The  producer  is  lined  with  fire-bricks.  By  the  sucking  action 
of  the  engine  a  mixture  of  air  and  steam  is  drawn  through  the  burn- 
ing fuel,  whereby  the  producer-gas  is  generated. 

The  producer  is  provided  with  a  hopper  through  which  fuel  can 
be  filled  into  the  producer  without  interfering  with  the  working  of 
the  engine.  The  cleaning  of  the  grate  may  be  performed  during 
the  regular  work. 

The  gas  leaving  the  producer  heats  up  the  evaporator  and  causes 
a  formation  of  steam  which  goes  under  the  grate  together  with 
the  necessary  amount  of  air.  From  the  producer  the  gas  goes 
through  the  scrubber,  in  which  it  is  cooled  and  purified  from  the 


388  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

dust  and  tar.  From  the  scrubber  it  goes  through  a  small  equalizer 
to  the  engine. 

Before  starting  the  engine  the  fuel  in  the  producer  has  to  be 
heated  up  by  means  of  a  small  hand-blower  a,  attached  to  same, 
until  the  fuel  is  burning  well.  For  this  about  ten  minutes  are 
required.  When  this  point  is  reached  the  hand-blower  is  stopped 
and  the  engine  started  in  the  usual  way. 

The  engine  then  draws,  by  its  own  sucking  action,  the  necessary 
amount  of  air  and  is  producing  its  own  power-gas.  The  air  is  enter- 
ing at  c  and  goes  through  the  evaporator  b.  Here  it  is  saturated 
with  steam  and  the  mixture  of  air  and  steam  passes  through  pipe 
d  under  the  grate  of  the  producer,  through  the  fuel,  and  then 
through  pipe  e  to  the  scrubber;  from  here  through  pipe  e±  to  the 
equalizing  tank  /,  which  is  directly  connected  with  the  engine. 
k  is  the  overflow  and  tar-box. 

The  gas-making  process  continues  as  long  as  the  engine  is  run- 
ning, but  as  soon  as  the  engine  is  stopped  the  gas-making  is  also 
stopped. 

The  cut  shows  a  sectional  elevation  of  a  25  horse-power  plant. 
The  plants  up  to  this  size  are  provided  with  a  sufficiently  large  fuel- 
hopper  so  as  to  contain  fuel  for  the  working-day  and  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  recharging  the  fuel  during  the  working-hours.  The 
sizes  above  25  horse-power  are  provided  with  a  bell-hopper,  and  the 
sizes  about  75  horse-power  have,  instead  of  a  water-jacket  evapo- 
rator, an  independent  evaporator.  These  producer-gas  plants  can 
be  used  equally  well  on  board  of  boats  in  connection  with  producer- 
gas  marine  engines. 

Anthracite,  charcoal,  or  coke  can  be  used  for  generating  gas  in 
the  suction  gas-producer.  It  will  take,  according  to  the  ash  con- 
tent, 1  to  1}  pounds  of  anthracite  or  charcoal,  or  1J  to  1J  pounds  of 
coke  for  developing  1  horse-power  per  hour.  With  anthracite 
(pea)  at  $5.00  per  ton,  1  horse-power  for  24  hours  will  cost  from 
6  to  8  cents.  This  is  about  one-sixth  the  cost  of  illuminating  gas- 
power  (at  a  price  of  75  cents  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  illuminating 
gas)  or  one-eighth  the  cost  of  gasoline  (at  a  price  of  16  cents  per 
gallon). 


390  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


SUCTION    OR    ASPIRATOR-GAS 

In  the  above-described  gas-producer  the  boiler  and  gas-holder, 
two  troublesome  adjuncts,  are  dispensed  with  and  their  cost,  care, 
and  room  made  a  saving  clause  in  the  generation  of  power.  In 
this  apparatus  the  gas  is  produced  directly  by  the  suction  or  aspira- 
tion of  the  motor  and  in  such  quantities  as  required  for  immediate 
use. 

In  the  use  of  this  gas,  an  open  fire  in  the  generator,  to  give  the 
draught  of  the  motor  as  free  from  obstruction  or  friction  as  possible, 
is  desirable,  such  as  derived  from  coke  or  clean  anthracite  coal. 

The  average  composition  of  this  gas  from  coke  of  13  240  heat 
units  per  pound,  consists  of : 

Hydrogen,  H 7.0% 

Monoxide  of  carbon,  CO. 27.6% 

Methane  or  Marsh  gas,  CH4. 2.0% 

Carbonic  acid,  C02 4.8% 

Nitrogen,  N 58.6% 


100.0 

One  cubic  foot  weighs  0.0748  pounds  and  density  0.93  (air  1) 
with  a  heating  value  of  about  135  British  thermal  units  per  cubic 
foot. 

The  volumes  of  air  and  gas  in  the  charging  mixture  are  propor- 
tionately as  their  heat-unit  values;  so  that,  practically,  with  the 
low  combustible  value  of  this  gas,  but  1.25  parts  of  air  to  1  part  gas 
is  required  for  perfect  combustion.  This  requires  a  like  proportion 
of  the  inlet-ports  and  supply-pipes  and  their  change  to  these  pro- 
portions in  motors  built  for  illuminating  and  other  high  thermal 
gases  and  vapors.  The  size  of  the  motor  for  a  given  horse-power 
is  also  subject  to  the  heat  value  of  the  combustible  used  for  power. 
Hence  a  gas-engine  of  given  dimensions,  using  illuminating  gas  of 
700  heat  units  per  cubic  foot  and  in  proportions  of  6  air  to  1  gas, 
will  represent  a  power  of  -2-f-Q-  =  100  heat  units  per  cubic  foot  of 
the  mixture  fed  to  the  engine;  while  with  suction-gas  of  135  heat 
units,  the  power  will  be  represented  by  the  charging  mixture, 


391 


392  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

1 J  air  to  1  gas  =  i-|-|  =  60  heat  units  per  cubic  foot  of  the  mixture 
fed  to  the  engine.  These  differences  should  represent  inversely  the 
relative  volumes  of  the  cylinders  for  equal  power. 

In  Fig.  348  we  illustrate  an  automatic-pressure  producer-plant 
as  built  by  the  Wile  Power  Gas  Company,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

The  automatic  producers  represent  a  considerable  advance  in 
the  producer-gas  industry,  combining  the  best  features  of  ordinary 
suction  and  pressure  producers. 

An  important  feature  of  the  automatic  type  is  that  the  producer 
is  under  suction  while  the  gas  is  supplied  to  the  engine  under  a  con- 
stant pressure  of  a  few  inches  of  water  in  a  small  regulating  gas- 
receiver.  The  producer  is  fitted  with  a  regulator  which  automati- 
cally controls  the  amount  of  gas  generated  and  at  the  same  time 
ensures  a  uniform  quality  of  gas  which  is  essential  for  the  steady 
working  of  any  gas-engine. 

This  producer  uses  any  class  of  fuel  which  is  available  and  makes 
the  gas  automatically  as  it  is  required.  When  the  demand  ceases, 
the  aspirator,  instead  of  drawing  air  and  steam  through  the  fuel- 
bed  and  generating  new  gas,  circulates  the  gas  already  made.  As 
only  the  amount  of  steam  and  air  enter  the  fire  which  is  necessary 
for  making  gas,  the  fire  in  the  producer  has  a  uniform  temperature 
and  only  gas  of  uniform  quality  is  made. 

Pressure  gas-plants,  the  main  characteristics  of  which  are  a  steam- 
boiler  and  gas-holder,  which  can  also  be  used  for  power  or  heating 
or  both,  obtain  their  draught  by  means  of  steam  raised  to  a  press- 
ure of  about  40  pounds  in  a  small  steam-boiler,  which  is  led  through 
an  injector  placed  at  I  (Fig.  348),  and  enters  the  generator  mixed 
with  air  and  making  the  gas  as  above  described,  which  then  passes 
through  the  hydraulic  seal-box  and  the  scrubbers  to  the  gas-holder. 
This  position  of  injector  for  making  gas  is  very  satisfactory  when 
the  load  is  constant,  but  difficulty  is  experienced  in  making  gas  of 
uniform  quality  under  varying  loads,  and  to  meet  this  demand  an 
improved  pressure-plant  has  been  designed,  in  which  the  injector  is 
placed  at  B(Fig.  348),  above  the  water  seal-box  D,  and  a  return  pipe 
E  comes  from  the  gas-holder  to  the  seal-box  D.  It  will  be  recog- 
nized that  with  the  injector  at  I  gas  will  constantly  be  manufactured 
unless  provision  is  made  for  cutting  off  the  steam-jet  when  the  gas- 
holder is  full  and  no  further  gas  is  required.  This  is  commonly  done 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION  393 

by  a  chain  arrangement  which  runs  from  the  gas-holder  to  the  in- 
jector and  comes  into  action  when  the  gas-holder  is  at  its  top  posi- 
tion. This  stoppage  of  the  blast  tends  to  cool  the  fire,  and  as  the 
gas-holder  falls,  the  steam-jet  will  again  come  into  action  at  full 
force,  and  a  further  cooling  will  take  place,  due  to  the  impingement 
of  a  full  blast  of  steam.  These  wide  variations  of  blast  lead  to  such 
variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  that  at  times  operations 
must  be  stopped,  so  as  to  blow  up  the  fire,  the  gas-holder  shut  off, 
and  the  poor  gas  made  thrown  away.  A  large  gas-holder  which  the 
engine  can  draw  upon  to  keep  going  is  therefore  necessary,  and  also 
the  constant  attention  of  a  man. 

In  the  plant  shown  in  Fig.  348  the  injector,  with  its  forty  pounds 
of  steam  pressure  placed  .at  B,  is  always  acting  on  the  water-seal  D, 
and  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  return-pipe  E  leads  back  to  the  seal, 
the  injector  is  either  acting  upon  the  gas-holder  when  the  gas-holder 
is  at  its  top  position  and  the  gas  return-valve  open,  or  is  acting  upon 
the  generator  when  the  valve  is  shut  and  the  gas-holder  down.  The 
tendency  of  the  injector  is  to  act  on  the  gas-holder,  as  there  is  less 
resistance  to  the  pipe  than  from  the  generator.  Steam  and  air  at 
atmospheric  pressure  are  led  through  the  saturator  I  into  the  open 
ash-pit,  and  the  mixture  can  only  enter  the  generator  when  the 
injector  is  drawing  upon  it,  and  only  in  the  quantity  required.  An 
even  temperature  of  fire  in  the  generator  is  obtained,  and  a  uniform 
quality  of  gas  is  made  automatically  with  varying  loads.  The  gas 
return-valve  is  opened  by  the  catch  H  when  the  gas-holder  is  in  its 
top  position,  and  the  gas  is  then  constantly  recirculated  from  the 
gas-holder  to  hydraulic  box  and  through  the  cleaning  apparatus. 
The  steam  at  B  aids  greatly  in  cleaning  the  gas.  With  this  plant  the 
gas-holder,  now  a  regulator,  is  continually  moving  slightly  up  and 
down  near  its  top  position. 

In  Fig.  349  we  illustrate  a  wood-fuel  gas-producer,  the  design  of 
M.  Roche,  Paris,  France,  which  brings  out  the  possibilities  of  utili- 
zation of  saw-mill  waste,  slabs,  and  sawdust,  and  the  waste  of  wood- 
working mills  for  the  production  of  power-gas. 

It  consists  of  a  central  furnace  in  which  the  fuel  charge  is  burned 
and  which  is  surrounded  by  a  series  of  retorts.  The  fuel  used  is 
wood  or  wood-waste  matter,  and  the  products  of  combustion  in  the 
furnace  F  pass  through  the  flue  E  and  around  the  retort  B.  Fuel 


394 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


is  fed  to  the  upper  part  of  this  retort,  which  is  sealed,  and  the  gas  is 
distilled  off  by  the  high  temperature  maintained.  The  only  exit  of 
the  retort  is  at  the  bottom,  and  in  travelling  down  through  the  retort 
the  gases  pass  through  the  lower  bed  of  fuel,  which  is  at  a  very  high 

temperature,  being  prac- 
tically in  a  state  of  incan- 
descence. Any  condensable 
gases  or  vapors  in  this  part 
of  the  retort  are  broken  up 
and  fixed  so  that  the  gases 
which  pass  through  the  U-- 
shaped pipe  L  to  the  hold- 
er K  are  in  the  condition 
of  permanent  gases.  When 
wood  is  used  as  fuel  the 
composition  of  these  gases 
is  about  18  per  cent,  car- 
bonic acid,  22  per  cent,  car- 
bon monoxide,  15  per  cent, 
methane,  and  45  per  cent, 
hydrogen.  The  calorific 
value  of  the  gas  is  about 
346  British  thermal  units 
per  cubic  foot.  While  this 
is  quite  high  it  should  be 
remembered  that  it  is  gen- 
erated by  distillation,  and 
is  therefore  free  from  ni- 
trogen, which  usually  forms 
about  50  per  cent,  of  the 

volume     of     producer  -  gas 
FIG.  349.-Rich6  distillation  producer.          made    by    combustiori;    and 

it  also  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  hydrogen.  The  products 
of  combustion  in  the  furnace  F,  after  circling  around  the  retort, 
pass  out  the  upper  flue  H,  through  the  opening  in  the  damper 
I,  and  out  the  exhaust-passage  J. 

In  Fig.  350  is  illustrated  the  suction  gas-plant  of  the  Fairbanks- 
Morse  Company,  Chicago,  111. 


M 


PRODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION 


395 


The  plant  consists  of  generator  A,  a  scrubber  B,  a  gas-tank  or 
receiver  C,  and  the  economizer  or  vaporizer  D.  The  generator  is 
fitted  with  stationary  cast-iron  grates,  and  lined  with  fire-brick  up 
to  the  gas-outlet.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  coal-hopper  or  charging 
reservoir  of  large  capacity,  which  reduces  the  frequency  of  charges. 
Poke-holes  are  so  located  in  the  top  of  generator  as  to  permit  ram- 
ming down  any  clinker  which  may  collect  by  the  use  of  inferior 
grades  of  fuel. 

Upon  leaving  the  producer  the  gases  pass  through  the  vaporizer 
or  economizer  D,  which  is  constructed  with  large  gas-passages  for 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  objectionable  clogging  which  results 


Trap 

FIG.  350. — Suction  producer-gas  plant. 

with  the  use  of  a  multiplicity  of  small  tubes  of  the  vertical  tubular- 
boiler  construction. 

Upon  leaving  the  vaporizer  the  gas  passes  to  a  combined  three- 
way  and  relief-valve,  this  valve  being  so  constructed  as  to  either 
vent  to  the  atmosphere  or  through  the  scrubber,  and  also  to  serve  as 
an  automatic  safety-valve  which  will  vent  gas  to  the  atmosphere 
in  case  any  excess  pressure  should  accumulate  in  the  system  for  any 
reason.  Passing  from  the  relief-valve  the  gas  enters  the  lower  part 
of  the  scrubber,  which  is  built  of  unusual  height,  thereby  cleaning 
the  gas  thoroughly  before  its  passage  to  the  purifier  or  engine. 

The  scrubber  is  provided  with  cast-iron  grates  and  a  water- 
pocket  in  its  base,  and  filled  full  of  coke.  A  spray-valve  or  nozzle  is 
located  in  the  centre  of  top  of  the  scrubber  and  is  of  such  design  as  to 


396  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

permit  carrying  full  water  pressure  at  the  valve  itself  and  control 
the  amount  of  spray  by  adjustment  of  the  nozzle. 

From  the  scrubber  the  gases  are  taken  out  at  the  top  to  prevent 
carrying  an  unnecessary  amount  of  moisture  to  the  engine.  The 
gas  passes  next  to  a  gas-tank  or  receiver  C,  which  serves  to  condense 
any  moisture  or  by-products  present  in  the  gas  and  carry  them  down 
its  side  to  its  base,  which  is  provided  with  hand-hole  openings  and 
cleaning  facilities.  This  enlargement  of  pipe,  or  receiver  as  it  is 
called,  also  provides  sufficient  storage  of  gas  immediately  adjacent 
to  the  engine-cylinder  to  insure  always  a  full  cylinder-mixture  and 
also  produces  a  relatively  steady  draft  through  the  producer  and 
constant  action  of  the  fire. 

Test-cocks  are  provided  at  the  three-way  valve  mentioned  and 
also  in  the  base  of  the  gas-receiver,  which  make  it  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  value  of  the  gas  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  put  the 
engine  in  service. 

A  sawdust  purifier  is  furnished  and  installed  between  the  scrub- 
ber and  engine,  whenever  the  character  of  the  fuel  to  be  used  in 
the  producer  is  of  such  nature  as  to  make  additional  cleaning  neces- 
sary. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  the  detail  of  design 
with  a  view  to  facilitating  inspection  and  cleaning  of  the  various 
parts  and  insuring  continuous  and  economical  service.  All  principal 
piping  connections  are  flange-fitted,  having  elbows  provided  with 
hand-holes  to  permit  of  cleaning  in  both  directions.  All  principal 
water  connections  have  T's  or  crosses  for  the  same  purpose,  and 
cleaning  doors  and  openings  of  liberal  dimensions  are  provided  in 
each  one  of  the  members. 

These  suction-plants  are  built  in  units  of  from  21  to  150  horse- 
power each  and  installed  for  powers  as  large  as  desired.  For  plants 
larger  than  150  horse-power  two  or  more  units  are  furnished  and  so 
piped  as  to  make  engines  and  producers  completely  interchangeable. 

Plants  of  various  sizes  have  been  installed  which  operate  con- 
tinuously 24  hours  per  day,  six  days  per  week,  and  endurance  tests 
have  been  conducted  which  demonstrate  that  a  producer-gas  instal- 
lation is  in  every  respect  as  dependable  as  the  best  laid-out  steam- 
plant. 

In  Fig.  351  we  illustrate  a  German  suction  gas-producer  plant 


RODUCER-GAS  AND  ITS   PRODUCTION 


397 


of  the  magazine-generator  type,  with  some  peculiarities  worthy  of 
note. 

Reference  to  the  diagram,  which  represents  a  section  through 
the  plant,  will  make  the  matter  clear.  A  is  the  generator,  which  is 
a  cylinder  of  wrought  or  cast  iron  -with  a  fire-brick  lining.  A1  is  a 
small  hand-fan  which  is  attached  to  the  producer,  and  which  is  used 
for  starting  purposes.  B  is  the  vaporizer,  consisting  of  a  grilled 
pipe  passing  through  a  water-jacket  as  shown.  Its  function  is  to 
vaporize  the  small  quantity  of  water  required  in  the  generator.  C 


FIG.  351. — Sectional  view  of  suction  gas-plant. 

is  a  coke-scrubber  for  cleaning  the  gas,  and  D  is  a  gas-box  fixed  close 
to  the  engine.  The  fire  is  lighted  in  the  fire-box  by  means  of  oil- 
waste  and  ordinary  kindling.  Anthracite  coal  or  coke  is  put  into 
the  generator  through  the  hopper — the  fire-box  door  is  closed,  the 
valve  E  is  opened,  and  the  fan  A1  is  started.  While  the  fire  is  being 
blown  up,  the  smoke  and  hot  gases — which  resemble  those  from  a 
smith's  forge — pass  through  the  vaporizer  B  and  escape  to  atmos- 
phere through  the  valve  E.  The  passage  of  these  gases  heats  the 
vaporizer  and  forms  water-vapor,  which  is  drawn  into  the  bottom  of 
the  generator.  After  about  six  minutes  the  gas  is  tested  by  a  small 
pet-cock.  As  it  improves  in  quality  the  valve  E  is  gradually  closed, 
and  the  gas  is  driven  through  the  scrubber,  where  it  meets  a  stream 
of  water  from  the  rose  1,  and  so  to  the  engine.  There  is  another 


398  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

test-cock  at  this  point,  and  as  soon  as  the  gas  is  considered  rich 
enough  the  valve  E  is  entirely  closed,  and  the  engine  is  started. 
The  vessels  J,  J  are  water-seals  for  collecting  the  surplus  water 
from  the  scrubber. 

It  is  a  good  practice,  where  electricity  is  available,  to  couple  the 
small  blowing  fan  directly  to  the  spindle  of  a  small  electric  motor. 
This  is  very  useful,  the  cost  is  small,  and  it  saves  labor  and  gives  the 
engine-driver  time  to  oil  up  and  look  round  his  plant  and  engine  be- 
fore starting  up.  It  also  enables  the  driver  to  brighten  up  his  fire 
from  time  to  time  when  he  is  standing  by  during  the  dinner-hour  or 
at  any  other  time.  For  this  latter  reason  the  by-pass  pipe  to  atmos- 
phere which  is  used  when  the  engine  is  not  at  work  should  be  made 
as  high  as  is  conveniently  possible,  so  as  to  create  a  draught  and 
keep  the  fire  alight  during  the  dinner-hour.  At  some  tests  made 
with  one  of  these  suction-plants,  burnable  gas  was  being  produced 
seven  minutes  after  the  fire  in  the  generator  was  lighted,  and  the 
engine  was  working  on  its  load  three  minutes  later.  This  may  have 
been  exceptional,  and  as  a  general  rule  15  to  20  minutes  from  cold 
is  ample  for  starting  purposes.  With  these  plants  it  is  desirable 
to  have  a  fairly  large  capacity  in  the  generator-hopper,  so  that 
stoking  need  be  less  frequent  and  so  that  the  coal  can  be  warmed 
and  dried  before  it  actually  comes  into  contact  with  the  fire.  It 
is  also  desirable  to  have  a  fairly  large  capacity  in  the  generator, 
so  that  if  the  fire  is  dirty,  or  the  coal  contains  shale,  the  produc- 
tion of  gas  does  not  suffer.  The  consumption  of  anthracite  coal 
in  a  suction-plant  is  one  pound  per  brake  horse-power  per  hour,  but 
a  brake  horse-power  hour  has  been  obtained  on  test  from  0.6  of  a 
pound  of  coal,  and  it  seems  probable  that  in  future  the  consump- 
tion will  be  considerably  below  one  pound. 


REGULATIONS   OF  THE  NATIONAL  BOARD  OF  UNDERWRITERS 

IN  REGARD   TO  THE  INSTALLATION  AND  OPERATION  OF 

PRODUCER-GAS  PLANTS: 

1.  Pressure  Systems. — All  pressure  systems  must  be  located  in  a 
special  building  or  buildings  approved  for  the  purpose  and  at  such 
distance  from  other  buildings  as  not  to  constitute   an   exposure 
thereto. 

2.  Suction  Systems. — (a)  A  suction  gas-producer  of  approved 
make,  having  a  maximum  capacity  not  exceeding  250  horse-power, 
may  be  located  inside  the  building,  provided  the  apparatus  for  pro- 
ducing and  preparing  the  gas  is  installed  in  a  separate,  enclosed, 
well-ventilated,  fire-proof  room,  with  standard  doors  at  all  commu- 
nicating openings. 

The  installation  of  gas-producers  in  cellars,  basements,  or  any 
other  places  where  artificial  light  will  be  necessary  for  their  opera- 
tion, is  considered  hazardous,  and  will  not  be  permitted  except  by 
special  permission  of  the  underwriters  having  jurisdiction. 

(6)  The  smoke  and  vent-pipe  shall,  where  practicable,  be  carried 
above  the  roof  of  the  building  in  which  the  apparatus  is  contained, 
and  adjoining  buildings,  and  when  buildings  are  too  high  to  make 
this  practicable,  the  pipe  shall  end  at  least  ten  feet  from  any  wall. 
Such  smoke  or  vent-pipes  shall  not  pass  through  floors,  roofs,  or 
partitions,  nor  shall  they,  under  any  circumstances,  be  connected 
into  chimneys  or  flues. 

(c)  Platforms  used  in  connection  with  generators  must  be  of 
metal.  Metal  cans  must  be  used  for  ashes. 

(rf)  The  producer  and  apparatus  connected  therewith  shall  be 
safely  set  on  a  solidly  built  foundation  of  brick,  stone,  or  cement. 

(e)  While  the  plant  is  not  in  operation  the  connection  between 
the  generator  and  scrubber  must  be  closed,  and  the  connection  be- 
tween the  producer  and  vent-pipe  opened,  so  that  the  products  of 
combustion  can  be  carried  into  the  open  air.  This  must  be  accom- 

399 


400  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

plished  by  means  of  a  mechanical  arrangement  which  will  prevent 
one  operation  without  the  other. 

(/)  The  producer  must  have  sufficient  mechanical  strength  to  suc- 
cessfully resist  all  strains  to  which  it  will  be  subjected  in  practice. 

(g)  Wire  gauze,  not  larger  than  sixty  mesh  or  its  equivalent,  must 
be  used  in  the  test-pipe  outlet  in  the  engine-room. 

(h)  If  illuminating  or  other  pressure  gas  is  used  as  an  alternative 
supply,  the  connections  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  the  mixing 
of  the  two  gases,  or  the  use  of  both  at  the  same  time  impossible. 

(i)  Before  making  repairs  which  involve  opening  the  gas  passages 
to  the  air,  the  producer-fire  must  be  drawn  and  quenched,  and  all 
combustible  gas  blown  out  of  the  apparatus  through  the  vent-pipe. 

(/)  The  opening  for  admitting  fuel  shall  be  provided  with  some 
charging  device  so  that  no  considerable  quantity  of  air  can  be  ad- 
mitted while  charging. 

(k)  The  apparatus  must  have  name-plate  giving  the  name  of  the 
device,  capacity,  and  name  of  maker. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

PATENTS 

ISSUED   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES   FOR  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND  OIL-ENGINES 
AND  THEIR  APPLIANCES,  FROM  1875  TO  SEPT.  i,  1905,  INCLUSIVE 


1875 

J.  Robson  

243.795 

G.  W.  Daimler  

.  .  .    168 

,623 

G.  Wacker  

242,401 

J.  Taggart  

.  .  .    161 

,454 

N.  A.  Otto  

241,707 

P.  Vera  

.  .  .    160 

,130 

J.  Ravel  

236,258 

1876 

1882 

J.  Brady  

...    176 

,588 

C.  G.  Beechy  

264,126 

A.  de  Bischop  

...    178 

,121 

R.  Hutchinson  

253,709 

T.  W.  Gilles  

.  .  .    179 

,782 

A.  P.  Massey  

260,587 

T.  McAdoo  

253.406 

1877 

P.  Munsinger  

266,304 

J.  Wortheim  

.  .  .    192 

,2O6 

L.  C.  Parker  

269,813 

R.  D.  Bradley  

...    187 

,092 

C.  M.  Sombart  

260,620 

F.  Deickman  

.  ..    195 

,585 

K.  Teichman  

269,163 

N.  A.  Otto  
Otto  &  Crossley  

.  .  .    194 
196 

,047 

,473 

H.  Wiedling  J 

259.736 
269,146 

i-  Qf*Q 

A.  K.  Rider  

267,458 

1878 

J.  Brady  

.  ,  .    200 

.97° 

E.  W.  Kellogg  
H.  H.  Burritt  

265,423 
258,884 

1879 

W.  H.  Wigmore  ,  

260,513 

F.  Burger  

f   222 

,569 

1883 

J.  H.  Connelly  
J  .  Robson  

.    .   .      211 
.   .  .      220 

,836 
,174 

^276,747 
276,748 

Wittig  &  Hees  
G.  W.  Daimler  

.   ..      2I3 
.  .  .      222 

,539 
,467 

C.  W.  Baldwin  „ 

276,749 
276,750 

276,751 

1880 

287,897 

E.  Buss  

.  .  .      226 

,972 

288,399 

L.  Durand  

.  .  .      232 

,808 

-290,310 

€.  Linford  

.  .  .      232 

,987 

J.  Charter  - 

270,202 

A.  K.  Rider  
Wittig  &  Hees  
D.  Clerk  
G.  W.  Daimler  

••      233 
.  .  .      225 
.  .  .      230 
•  •  •      232 

,804 
,778 
,470 
,243 

1 
H.  Denney  
Eteve  &  Lallemont  
J.  A.  Ewins  

270,203 
290,632 
272,130 
278,421 

E.  J.  Frost  

273,269 

1881 

W.  Hammerschmidt  

288,632 

E.  Renier  

.  .      247 

,74i 

( 

284,555 

€.  J.  B.  Gaume  

.  .      240 

,994 

Geo.  M.  Hopkins  •< 

284,556 

A.  K.  Rider  

•  •      245 

,218 

( 

284,557 

401 

402 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


G.  M.  &  I.  N.  Hopkins  .... 

284,851       S.  Marcus  

306,339 

Jackson  &  Kirkpatrick  .... 

283,398 

f  296,341 

S.  Marcus  

286,030 

291,065: 

H.  S.  Maxim  .  .                      .  J 

•••"<  293,762 

i 

279,657 

302,271 

'271,902 

[.293,185 

278,255       J.  Spiel  

291,102 

278,256      C.  H.  Andrews  

3OI.°78 

L.  N.  Nash  ^ 

289,019      J.  Schweizer  

292,864 

289,691       N.H.Thompson  &  C.B 

Swan  300,661 

280,692 

c  289,693                                    1885 

N.  A.  Otto  

288,479       S.  Wilcox  

332,  312 

L.  C.  Parker  (reissue)  

10,290       C.  H.  Andrews  

.  .  .    314,284 

1 

284,061 

r325,377 

G.  H.  Reynolds  - 

,:S3      C-W-B^win  

J325.378 
1  325,379 

J.  Robson  

27S,60O 

^325,380 

C.  Rohn  

280,083       C.  Benz  

316,868- 

C.  Shelburne  

277,618       M.  G.  Crane  

327,866 

T.  W.  Turner  

289,362       Q   Daimler 

j  3J3.922 

L.  C.  Parker  

287,855 

(  3*3.923 

W.  A.  Graham  

33°>3I7 

1884 

H.  Hartig  

324,554 

G.  M.  Allen  
J.  Atkinson  

301,320      G.  M.&  I.  N.  Hopkins 
306,712 

c  326,561 
(  326,562 

J.  Charter  

292,894      T.  McDonough  

315.808 

E.  Edwards  

30o.453 

r3I2,494 

C.  J.  B.  Gaume  

302,478 

J  312,496 

Geo.  M.  Hopkins  

306,254 

1  312,497 

G.  M.  &  I.  N.  Hopkins  

305.452 

1312,498 

I.  N.  Hopkins  

306,924      j    F    place 

j  322,477 

C.  W.  King  &  A.  W.  Cliff.. 

293.  J79 

(  328,970 

S.  Lawson  .  J 

306,933       D.S.Regan  

333,336 

1 

-307,057       C.  Shelburne.... 

(  322,650 

H.  S.  Maxim.  .                      .  j 

295,784 

(  332,447 

I 

296,340       D.  S.  Troy  

317,892 

J.  A.  Menck  —  A.  Hambrock 

295,415 

^  332,313 

I 

-305,464      S.  Wilcox  

j  332,314 

P.  Murray,  Jr  -| 

305,466      J.  S.  Wood.  .  .  .  •.  

'  332,3*5 
328,170 

\ 

-305,467      A.  W.  Schleicher  

3*4,727 

B.  Parker  

308,572       H.  P.  Feister  

324,244 

F.  W.  Rachholds  

301,009       E.  Schrabetz  

312,906 

J.  Spiel  

302,045 

^312,499 

W.  L.  Tobey  

306,443 

1  33*.o78 

S.  L.  Wiegand  

297,329      L.  N.  Nash  

..-•^  33i,o79 

T.  S.  Wood  

300,294 

331,080 

A.  K.  Rider  

292,178 

[,331,210 

C.  G.  Beechev  

306,314      D.  S.  Regan.  

320,285 

PATENTS 


403 


S.  Sintz 

G.  M.  Ward.. 


315,082 
311,214 


1886 


G.  Ragot  &  G.  Smyers 35°»7t)9 

L.  H.  Nash 334,041 

1887 


C.  H.  Andrews  —  H.  Williams  341,538 

J.  Atkinson  

367,496 

G.  C.  Anthony  

337,226 

C.  W.  Baldwin.  .                   ./ 

368,444 

J  .  Atkinson  

336,505 

I 

368,445 

J.  Charter  

335,564 

H.  Campbell  

367,184 

J.  H.  Clark  

347,469 

J    Charter  \ 

356,447 

G.  Daimler  (reissue)  .  . 

10,75° 

370,242 

E.    Delamare  —  Deboutte- 

L.  T.  Cornell  

359.920 

ville  

333,838 

F.  W.  Crossley  

370,322 

J.  Hodgkinson  —  J.  H. 

Dew- 

C.  J.  B.  Gaume  

374,056 

hurst  

347,603 

F.  W.  Ofeldt  

356,419 

E.  J.  J.  Lenoir  
J.  J.  E.  Lenoir  

345,596 
335,462 

A.  Schmid—  J.  C.  Beckfield  f362'187 
(reissue)  j  371.793 

(  35^393 

V. 

P.  Murray,  Jr  

]  35I>394 

R.  Van  Kalkreuth  

358,134 

\  35  1  ,395 

J.  S.  Wood  

363,497 

(334,039 

N.  C.  Bassett  

359.552 

L.  H.  Nash  

•  •  •  •  j  34i,934 

T.  Shaw  

367,936 

*  34i,935 

W  .  Gavillet  —  L  .  Martaresche 

357,  J93 

N.  E.  Nash  

340,435 

E.  Korting  

366,116 

J    F    Place  

j  348,998 

F.  Von  Martini  

358,796 

(  348,999 

T.  Backeljan  

364,205 

N.  B.  Randall  

355,  101 

H.  P.  Holt—  F.  W.  Crossley. 

37°,258 

A.  L.  Riker  

349,858 

N.  A.  Otto  

365,701 

C.  Sintz  

339,225 

F.  W.  Crossley—  H.  P.  Holt 

H.  &  C.  E.  Skinner.  .  . 

335,97! 

—  F.  H.  Anderson   

363,508 

R.  F.  Smith  

f  345,998 

B.  F.  Kadel....  

374,968 

1347,656 

J.  Spiel  

•    349,464 

1888 

S   Wilcox  

(343,744 

H.  T.  Dawson  

392,191 

(343,745 

E  .  Delamare  —  Deboutteville 

L.  H.  Nash  

j  334,038 

(reissue)  

10,  951 

I  334,040 

H.  Hartig  

39*.  528 

E.  Korting  

346,374 

I.  N.  Hopkins  

379,397 

J.  H.  Clark  

353-402 

E.  Korting  

377,623 

C.  E.  Skinner  

(  352,368 
i  335,97° 

L.  H.  Nash  j 

386,208 
386,210 

F.  Bain  

354,88i 

( 

386,211 

C.  W.  Baldwin  

352,796 

J.  Noble  

379,807 

N.  A.  Otto  
H.  Robinson  

35°.o77 
346,687 

H.  K.  Shanck  j 

376,212 
390,710 

N.  A.  Otto  

335,038 

W.  S.  Sharpneck  

391,486 

J.  P.  Holland  

f337,ooo 

C.  Sintz  

383,775 

1335,629 

H.  Skinner  

389,608 

A.  K.  Rider  

349,983 

R.  F.  Smith  

377,962 

G.  Daimler  

334,109 

G.  W.  Stewart  

381,488 

J.  Spiel  

349-369 

J.  Bradley  

386,233 

404 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


J.  R.  Daly 392,109 

(-386,214 
386,216 

L.  H.  Nash..  J  386,212 

1  386,213 

386,215 

[386,209 

R.  Bocklen 384,673 

N.  A.  Otto 388,372 

H.  Williams 386,949 

N.  A.  Otto 386,929 

A.  Rollason....  .  j  39i,33» 

1  394,299 
C.  L.  Seabury 393,080 


N.  Rogers— J.  A.  Wharry.  j 


1889 

A.  Schmid— J.  C.  Beckfield. 
J.  J.  R.  Humes 

C.W.Baldwin..  .  J 


C.  W.  Baldwin 
T.  B.  Barker.. 
J.  C.  Beckfield. 
L.  T.  Cornell  . . 
W.  E.  Crist.... 
H.  J.  Hartig... 
A.  Histon.  . 


S.  Lawson. . 

J .  Mathies . . 
L.  H.  Nash. 


D.  S.  Regan..  . 

N.  Rogers — J.  A.  Wharry.  . 

A.  Schmid 

C.  Sintz 

H.  Tenting 

W.  von  Oechelhaeuser 

C.  White— A.  R.  Middleton. 

L.  F.  McNett 

N.  Rogers— J.  A.  Wharry.  . 

W.  E.  Crist 

L.  H.  Nash 

E.  D.  Deboutteville — L.  P.  c 
C.  Malandin { 

E.  Capitaine 

E.  Korting 


403,294 
400,850 
407,320 
407,321 
408,623 
400,163 
396,022 
406,263 


400,458 
399.907 
399,9o8 
402,749 
402,750 
402,751 
411,668 

401,453 
418,417 
408,356 
403,379 
396,238 
416,649 
402,363 

417,759 
406,807 
407,961 
403,378 
417,472 
418,419 
400,754 
411,644 
408,460 
417,924 


L.  H.  Nash 

L.  C.  &  B.  Parker 

E.  Capitaine 

I.  F.  Allman 

N.  Rogers— J.  A.  Wharry.  . 

J.  C.  Beckfield 

S.  Griffin 

H.  Hoelljies 

L.  H.  Nash 

E.  Capitaine 

C.  S.  A.  H.  Wiedling 

J.  J.  Purnell 

S.  Wilcox.. 


L.  C.  &  B.  Parker. 


W.  J.  Crossley 

G.  Daimler 

J.  Charter 

N.  A.  Otto 

M.  V.  Schiltz 

A.Allmann-F.  Kuppermann 
K.  Gramm . . 


G.  B.  Brayton 

W.  D.  &  S.  Priestman 


E.  Butler 

H.  Lindley  &  T.  Browett 
N.  A.  Otto 

H.  Campbell 

G.  McGee 

J.  Taylor 


N.  A.  Otto 


403,377 
403,376 
401,452 
401,204 
408,459 
411,211 
403,380 
417,624 
412,883 
408,483 
418,418 
406,160 
398,108 
408,137 
402,549 
403,367 

405,795 
406,706 
418,112 

415,446 
407,234 

399,569 

412,228 
415,908 


432,260 
430,038 
423,214 

437.973 
440,485 
433.8o6 
433.8o7 
428,801 
432,638 
443,082 
433,809 
433.8io 
433.8n 
433.8i2 


433.8i4 
437,5o8 
1.424,345 

M.  M.  Barrett— J.  F.  Daly  \  434,695 

(430,504 

F.  Diirr 442,248 

H.  J.  Baker. 421,473 

C.  W.  Baldwin 434.I71 


PATENTS 


405 


M.  M.  Barrett—  J.  F.  Daly  J  43°'5°5 
1  430,506 

M.  A.  Graham  
O.  Kosztovits  

445,110 
448,924 

J.  C.  Beckfield  432,720 

G.W.Lewis  

451,621 

5421,474 

E.  Narjot  

448,989 

42i,475 

B.  C.  Vanduzen  

448,597 

42i,477 

G.  J.  Weber  j 

449,507 

E.  H.  Gaze  437,776 

444,031 

J.  Mohs  426,297 

M.  M.  Barrett  

452,174 

E.  Quack  441,582 

M.  M.  Barrett  —  J.  F.  Daly. 

463,435 

D.  S.  Regan  (reissue)  11,068 

D.  D.  &  J.T.  Hobbs  

460,070 

A.  Schmid  —  J.  C.  Beckfield    421,524 

C 

459,403 

H.  K.  Shank  439,200 

F.  W.  Lanchester  J 

459,404 

W.  S.  Sharpneck  441,028 

I 

459,405 

C.  Sintz  426,337 

465,480 

J.  D.  Smith  418,821 

L.  G.  Wolley  

450,091 

E.  A.  Sperry  433,  55* 
J.  R.  Valentine  —  A.  T.  Grigg  425,116 

J.  S.  Connelly  j 

457,459 
457,46o 

C  W  Weiss..                          (419,805 

V.  Loutsky  

460,241 

(  419,806 

P.  Neil  —  A.  Janiot  

462,447 

C.  White—  A.  R.  Middleton.    438,209 

H.  Williams  

457,020 

J.  J.  Pearson  —  J.  Kunze.  .  .  .   428,858 

B.  C.  Vanduzen  

448,386 

G.  H.  Chappell.  .  .  .  (Rotary)  441,865 

P.  C.  Sainsevain  

461,802 

J.  H.  Eichler  (Rotary)  442,963 

G.  Roberts  

446,016 

G.  E.  Hibbard.  .  .  .  (Rotary)  424,000 

F.  S.  Durand  

455,483 

W.  S.  Sharpneck.  .(Rotary)  428,762 

H.  Schumm  

458,073 

W.  C.  Rossney  420,169 

H.  Lindley  

450.771 

E.  F.  Roberts  424,027 

E.  Kaselowsky  

463,231 

C.  W.  Baldwin  439,232 

G.  W.  Lewis  

451,620 

J.  J.  Pearson  426,736 
J.  W.  Eisenhuth  436,936 

A.  Rollason  —  J.  H.  Hamil-  j 
ton  1 

456,505 
456,853 

J.W.Eisenhuth..                 .  j  430,310 

{ 

457.332 

(  43°,  312 

O.  Lindner  

453,446 

G.  B.  Brayton  432,114 

L.  Kessler  

451,824 

A.  W.  Schleicher—  P.  A.  N. 

D.  S.  Regan  

448,360 

Winand 434,609 

P.  A.  N.  Winand— L.  V. 

Goebbels 435,637 

J.  Roots 425,909 

H.  A.  Stuart 439,702 

N.  A.  Otto 437,507 

C.  von  Lude 435,439 

1891 

A.  Harding 452,520 

I.  F.  Allman. 453,071 

J.  Charter 455,388 

B.  H.  Coffee 446,851 

P.  T.  Coffield— C.  H.  Poxson  456,284 

E.  W.  Evans 452,568 

J.  Fielding 450,406 


1892 

J.  Joyce 480,019 

B.  Stein 478,651 

D.  Best 484,727 

J.  Charter 472,106 

J.  A.  Charter..  .  j  473, 293 

(  477,295 

H.  T.  Dawson 466,331 

E.  W.  Evans 488,165 

J.  W.  Raymond 488,483 

H.  Warden 486,143 

J.  Wehrschmidt 484,168 

C.  W.  Weiss 473,685 

S.  Withers — D.  S.  Covert.  .  487,313 

H.  Schumm 488,093 


406 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


C.  W.  Pinkney, 


E.  I.  Nichols 480,272 

H.  Schumm 482,202 

A.  Niemezyk 480,737 

G.  W.  Weatherhogg 480,535 

1893 

F.  E.Tremper j  495,28i 

/  503,016 

J.  S.  Bigger 49I>403 

F.  Cordenons 500,754 

J.  Foos — C.  F.  Endter 494,134 

C.  J.  B.  Gaume 501,881 

W.  W.  Grant 497,239 

C.  F.  Hirsch— A.  Schilling.  .    507,436 

D.  D.  Hobbs 506,817 

G.  E.  Hoyt.  .  .  J  502,255 

(  510,140 

S.  Lawson 498,476 

G.  W.  Lewis 5*1,535 

W.  von  Oechelhaeuser — H. 

Junkers 508,833 

r499>935 
I  504,614 

i  505.327 
^511,158 

J.  W.  Raymond 491,855 

C.  Sintz 509,255 

C.  V.  Walls 498,700 

H.  A.  Weeks— G.  W.  Lewis.    511,478 

W.  H.  Worth 504,260 

H.  W.  Tuttle 510,213 

D.  Best 496,718 

C.  W.  Weiss 492,126 

A.  Niemezyk 508,042 

C.  B.  Wattles 509,981 

E.  Delamare — Peboutteville 

— L.  Melandin 511,593 

H.  Schumm..  .  j  497,689 

<  5IO>712 

C.  Stein 511,661 

P.  H.  Irgens 5°5.767 

H.  Williams 490,006 

B.  Chatterton -.    505,751 

A.  Gray. 504,723 

W.  Seek 509,830 

1894 

J.  Low — J.  W.  Gow 515,297 

P.  A.  N.  Winand 525,828 

A.  J.  Painter 523'369 


W.  S.  Elliott,  Jr. 523,628 

H.  F.  Frazer 526,348 

J.  B.  Carse..  .  j  Si»,i77 

f  518,178 

B.  H.  Coffey 514,211 

H.  T.  Dawson j  513,486 

W.  W.  Grant 525,651 

J.  W.  Hartley— J.  Kerr.  .  .  .  515,770 

C.  F.  Hirsch 526,837 

F.  Hirsch .  <  522,712 

(530,523 

C.  S.  Hisey 514,713 

J.  Labataille — J.  J.  Graff..  517,821 

D.  C.  Luce 519,863 

J.  McGeorge 525,857 

F.  S.  Mead 528,006 

H.  B.  Migl-iavacca 528,105 

E.  Narjot 515,530 

F.  C.  Olin 525,358 

J.  &  W.  Paterson 528,489 

T.  H.  &  J.  T.  H.  Paul 530,237 

H.  Pokony 514,271 

S.  D.  Shepperd 521,443 

H.  Swain 519,880 

R.  Thayer 517,077 

H.  Voll , 527,635 

J.  Walrath 522,811 

F.  Hirsch 518,717 

W.  W.  Grant 514,359 

K.  A.  Jacobson 514,996 

M.  Lorois 529,452 

W.  A.  Shaw 523,734 

W.  F.  West 513,289 

W.  Seek 517,890 

H.  M.  L.  Crouan 515,116 

H.  H.  Andrew— A.  R.  Bel-  c  526,369 

lamy \  528,063 

H.  Schumm 528,115 

H.Campbell 523,511 

L.  Crebessac 530,161 

R.  B.  Hain 531,182 


G.  W.  Waltenbough 543, 116 

H.  Schumm 548,142 

F.  M.  Underwood 542,743 

F.  S.  Mead 546,238 

H.  Thau. 545-553 

A.  J.  Signor 538.132 


PATENTS 


407 


C.  L.  Ives  

534,886 

B.  W.  Grist  

545-  125 

M.  L.  Mery  

543,  J57 

J  .  Robison  

532,098 

C.  W.  Weiss  J 

543,  l63 

P.  Burt—  G.  McGhee  

550,674 

543.  l65 

G.  W.  Roth  

539,923 

J.  J.  Norman  

548,922 

F.  S.  Mead  

544,586 

J.  J.  Bordman  

547.414 

J.  E.  Weyman—  A.  J.  &  J. 

J.  Bryan  

542,972 

A.  Drake  

542,124 

E.  E.  Butler  

546,110 

P.  Bilbault  

532,412 

J.  A.  Charter  
F.  W.  C.  Cock  

532,314 
544,210 

A.  R.  Bellamy  .  .  .  j 

536,997 
537,963 

F.  W.  Coen  

55^579 

O.  Colborne  

550,675 

G.  F.  Conner  

548,628 

J.  Robison  

532,o99 

F.  E.  Covey  —  G.  W.  Haines. 

532,869 

C.  &  A.  Spiel  

532,  2I9 

W.  L.  Crouch—  E.  E.  Pierce 

535.  8l5 

J.  E.  Friend  

550,785 

J.  Day..                                     j 

543.6x4 

S.  Griffin  

542,410 

544,214 

W.  Seek  

549,939 

H.  J.  Dykes  

539.122 

H.  F.  Wallmann  

548,824 

J  .  Froelich  

550,266 

W.  E.  Gibbon  

547,606 

E.  R.  Gill  

536.°29 

( 

535,9!4 

H.  H.  Hennegin  

545.502 

V.  List  —  J.  Kossakoff  -J 

536,090 

F.  Hirsch  

532,555 

( 

550,185 

A.  R.  Holmes  

540,490 

A.  W.  Brown  

532,865 

L.  M.  Johnston  

538,680 

F.  Mayer....  

549,677 

T.W.Lambert..                   .  J 

534,i63 

F.W.Ofeldt..                       .5 

538,694 

1 

550.832 

( 

540,757 

H.    A.    Lauson  —  J.   J.    Nor- 

W. Lorenz  

535,837 

man  —  A.  D.  Nott  

550.451 

J  .  Robison  .  .i 

532,o97 

F.  S.  Mead.  .                         .  .< 

54i,773 

I 

532,100 

I 

545.709 

F.  P.  Miller  

532,980 

1896 

- 

C.  M.  Rhodes                           ( 

53i,86i 

J.  F.  Duryea  

557,469 

540,923 

J.  F.Daly  &  W.  L.  Corson.  . 

557,493 

F.  A.  Rider  —  S.  Vivian.  .  .  . 

533,922 

G.  E.  Hoyt  

561,890 

B.L.Rinehart—  B.M.Turner 

552,332 

A.  A.  Hamerschlage  

561,886 

C.  Sintz  

539,  7!o 

G.  F.  Eggerdinger  and  G.  R. 

E.  J.Stoddard  

533,754 

Swaine  

56i,774 

H  .  Swain  

535.964 

G.  W.  Lamos  

562,307 

G.  Van  Zandt  

537.253 

Fred  Mex  

562,230 

C.  V.  Walls  

537.370 

H.  G.  Carnell  j 

533,662 

G.  J.  Weber  

534,354 

556,o86 

H.  A.  Weeks  

543,8i8 

F.  W.  Mellars  

556,195 

C.  J.  Weinman—  E.  E.  Euch- 

C.  J.Weinman—  E.  E.  Euch-  j 

555,717 

enhofer  

537.512 

enhof  er  | 

555,791 

C.  White—  A.  R.  Middleton 

545.995 

F.W.Crossley  &J.  Atkinson. 

555.898 

D.  Best  

544,879 

M.  G.  Nixon  

559,399 

F.  Burger  

549,626 

J.  M.  Worth  

559,oi7 

J.  R.  Bridges  

548,772 

G.L.Thomas  

558,749 

J.  W.  Lambert  

536,287 

C.Wagerell—  A.A.Williams  . 

555,355 

G.  W.  Roth  

552,263 

W   W   Grant                           j 

553,46o 

W.  R.  Campbell  

550,742 

1 

553,488 

408 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


S.  M.  Miller 

F.  M.  Underwood 

W.  D.  &  S.  Priestman 

J.S.  F.  &E.  Carter 

L.  J.  Monahan — J.  D.  Ter- 

mant 

P.  A.  N.  Winand 

H.  L.  Parker 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth 

G.  Alderson 

A.  F.  Rober 

L.  H.  Nash 

T.  M.  Spaulding 

L.  S.  Gardner.  . 


553,352       E  j    pennmgton 


j 

E.  Kasalowsky 

I.  F.  Allman 

H.  C.  Baker 

F.  S.  Mead 

A.  W.  Bodell 

P.  A.  N.  Winand 

L.  F.  Allman 

L.  M.  Burgeois,  Jr 

A.  J.  Pierce 

E.  N.  Dickerson J 

H.  Swain 

J.  Robison 

R.  E.  Olds— M.  F.  Bates.  .. 

B.  Wolf 

A.  Barker 

H.  Ebbs 

G.  H.  Willets 

H.  A.  Winter 

H.  Van  Hoevenburgh 

C.  D.  Anderson 

J.  S.  Klein 

J.  S.— R.  D.— W.  D.  &  C.  H. 

Cundall 

G.  A.  Thode.. 


F.  C.  Olin.. 


H.  A.  Winter 

C.  J.  Weinman— E.  E.  Euch- 

enhofer 

H.  Schumm 

H.  C.  Hart 

M.  W.  Weir 

T.  von  Querfurth 

R.  E.  Olds.. 


552. 7l8 
552,686 

561,123 
561,302 
560,920 

558,369 
560,016 
560,149 

563.051 
562,673 
562,720 
558,943 
559.290 
556,237 
563,249 
563,67° 
563,548 
563.535 
563,541 
564,182 

564,643 
564,684 

565,157 
564,769 
565,033 
565,786 
566,263 
566,125 
566,300 
567.530 
567,432 
567,928 
567,954 
568,115 

568,017 
568,814 
569,386 
569,564 
569,530 

569,365 
569.942 
569,918 
569,694 
569.672 
570.263 


R.  Rolfson 

L.  Gathman .  .  .  s 

E.  Prouty 

C.  W.  Pinkney 

C.  A.  Kunzel,  Jr 

G.W.Lewis 

F.  C.  Olin 

E.  Rappe 

M.  Blakey 

J.  F.  Duryea 

E.  E.  Ludi 

E.  Capitaine 

F.  J.  Rettig 

F.  E.  Culver 

S.  M.  Balzer 

J.  Charter,  Jr 

G.  S.  Tiffany 

M.  F.  Underwood 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth 


1897 


F.  Burger 

F.  C.  Southwell. 


J.  Walrath 


L.  Benier. 
H.  S.  Bristol. . 
T.  W.  Cohen.. 
P.  T.  Coffield. 
O.  Colborne.. 


W.  L.  Crouch J 

C.  L.  Grohmann 

G.  Joranson 

J.  Ledent 

L.  H.  Nash J 

L.  H.  Wattles 

G.  W.  Lamas 

J.  D.  Blagden (Rotary) 

E.  W.  Blum 

W.  Donaldson 

E.  Fessard 

W.  F.  Trotter 

W.  Rowbotham.  .  .  5 


A.  Peugeot .  . 
G.  W.  Lewis. 


570,440- 

57o.44i 
570,649. 

570,47°' 
570,500- 

571.239- 
57!,447 
571,534 
571,495 
57I,498- 
571,966 
572,051 
572,209- 
572,498- 
573>296- 
573,209. 
573, !74- 
573,762 
573,628. 

574,i83. 
574,3" 


576,43o- 

577,898- 
578,377 
579,378- 
575,326 
575,878- 

579,860- 
574,670 

575,502- 

574,535 
574,610- 

575,72° 
576,604 
578,112 
577,567 
574,6i4 
575, 5J7 
579,554- 
577,160 

574,723 
575,66i 
574,762 
578,266 
577,536 


PATENTS 


409 


O.  Bamborn  

•    578.034 

L.  S.  Brown  

585,504 

E.  Merry  

.    579,068 

H.  B.  Steel  

585,601 

W.  Maybach  

•    577,167 

F.  Burger  

585,651 

M.  Blakey  

.    580,172 

J.  A.  Charter  

585,652 

J.  G.  Lewis  

.    580,090 

C.  Jacobson  

586,312 

G.  H.  Ellis  and  J.  F.  Steward  580,387 

J.  D.  Russ  .-. 

586,321 

H.  C.  Baker  

.    580,444 

E.  P.  Woillard  

586,409 

D.  Best  

•    580,446 

E.  J.  Pennington  

586,511 

F.  G.  and  F.  H.  Bates  

•    58o,445 

T.  A.  Redmon  

586,826 

W.  O.  Worth  

.    581,683 

A.  A.  Williams  

587,627 

E.   P,  Woillard  

.    58i,385 

P.  Mueller  

587,747 

A.  Winton  

.    582,108 

H.  C.  Hart  | 

588,061 

T    Small  

(581,783 

588,062 

"1581,784 

A.  G.  Pace  

588,466 

F.  S.  Mead  

•    582,073 

S.  A.  Reeve  

588,292 

G.  Alderson  

•    58i,930 

C.  Quast  

588,876 

W.  H.  Knight  

.    581,826 

L.  Ely  

588,629 

O.  Mueller  

.    582,540 

White  &  Middleton  

588,917 

J.  W.  Lambert  

•    582,532 

J.  C.  Wilson  

589>I5o 

H.  T,  Dawson  

.    582,271 

E.  R.  Moffitt  

589,509 

F   M    Rites  

(  582,231 

J.  S.  Walch  

590,080 

i  582,232 

A.  J.  Tackle  

59°,  796 

J.  A.  Charter.  

.    582,620 

V.  G.  Apple  

59I>I23 

G.  W.  Lewis  

•    583,399 

F.  Conley  and  C.  J.  Macom- 

G.    Westinghouse    and    E. 
Rund 

(583,586 
]  583,584 

ber  
M.O.  Godding  

591>34i 
59J>598 

'583,585 

D.  Best  (reissue)  

11,633 

G.  Langen  

.    583,600 

C.   I.  Cummings  and  J.  C. 

H.  B.  Maxwell  

•    583,495 

Hilton  

591,952 

L.  H.  Nash  

(  583,627 

C.  W.  Weiss  5 

592,033 

1  583,628 

( 

592,034 

J.  W.  Raymond  

j  583,507 
I  583,508 

P.  Auriol  
C.  L.  Mayhew  

592,o73 
591,862 

J.  H.  Tuffs  

•    583,872 

C.  Sintz  

592,669 

F.  Burger  and   H.  M.  Will- 

F. C.  Olin  

592,881 

iams  

.    584,282 

F.  W.  Spacke  

593,034 

F.  C.  Griswold  

.    584,130 

F.  W.  Lancaster  

562,794 

P.  B.  and  S.  D.  McLelland 

.    584,188 

J.  J.  Heilmann  

593,296 

W.  F.  Davis  

•    583,982 

C.  A.  Schwarm  

593,970 

P.  A.  N.  Winand  

•    583,962 

F.  F.  Snow  

593,911 

J.  O.  Brown  

.    584,622 

A.   Rosenberg  

593,859 

E.  B.  Dake  

•    584,674 

W.   Bayley  

594,372 

C.    C.    Wright    and   W.    J 

J.  Q.  Chase  

595,043 

Stephens  

,    584,448 

McFadden  and  Lloyd  

595,324 

C.  Quast  

{  584,961 
}  584,960 

A.  L.  Harbison  
E.  Meredith  

595,625 
595,489 

C.  A.  Miller  

•    585,n5 

W.  Rowbotham  

595,497 

G.  W.  Starr  and  J.  H.  Cogs 

- 

J.  B.  Fenner  

596,239 

well  

•    585,127 

E.  R.  Bales  

596,352 

W.  E.  Gibbon.  

•    585,434 

F.  W.  Lancaster  

596,271 

410 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


1898 

W.  J.  Wright  .............    607, 

W.  E.  White  ..............    599, 

J.Madlehner  and  F.  Hamilton  616, 
W.  von  Oechelhaeuser  .....    596, 

W.  O.  Worth  .............    607, 


J.  S.  Klein 


615, 


T.  M.  Doyle 602 

F.  S.  Mead..  .  j  6°3 

I  612 

H.  A.  Humphrey 611 

W.  Morava •  608 

W.  R.  Bullis 597 

R.  Diesel 608 

F.  L.  Merritt 605 

M.  H.  Rumpf 615 

G.  L.  Woodworth 607 

G.  H.  Gere 598 

R.  B.  Hain 599 

W.  F.  Trotter .  603 

C.  A.  Lefebvre 614 

A.  A.  Vansickle 615 

P.  E.  Singer 600 

A.  Howard 602 

G.  A.  Marconnett 6n 

E.WiesemanandJ.Holroyd  J  6o° 

(  600 

S.  Rolfe 597 

S.  Bouton 606 

L.  Halvorson 600 

C.  E.  Henriod 603 

P.  L.  Hider 599 

G.  A.  Newman 602 

J.  A.  Secor 602, 

E.  D.  Strong 597 

(598 
A.  Winton J  6oo 

(610 

M.  F.  Bates 607, 

M.  Beck 602, 

L.  F.  Burger 598, 

H.  G.  Carnell 613, 

J.CarnesandC.W.McKibben  603, 

F.  E.  Culver 601, 

A.  H.  Dingman 610, 

J.  F.  Duryea 605, 

J.  Fraser 599, 

C.  Guyer 596, 

H.  H.  Hennegin 597, 


,904 
376 
059 
,613 

.613 

,284 

'393 
,556 
,9i4 
,258 
125 
968 

389 

>845 

.583 
049 

3i7 
986 

653 
297 
,114 
766 
971 
161 

813 
,107 

974 
860 

504 
J47 
986 

235 
707 

477 
921 

832 
819 
465 
536 

820 
496 

757 
125 

OI2 
034 

8lS 
496 
809 
771 


T.  H.  Hicks 

D.  D.  Hobbs 

C.  Jacobson 

J.  N.  Kelly  and  W.  M.  Kelch 

J.  Lizotte 

S.  E.  Maxwell 

L.  H.  Millen 

J.  J.  Ohrt 

F.  C.  Olin 

J.  A.  Ostenberg 


C.  Quast 


J.  Reid 

S.  S.  Simrak. . . . 

H.  C.  Strang 

D.  M.  Tuttle..., 
B.  C.  Vanduzen, 
W.  E.  White... 

L.  J.  Wing 

W.  J.  Wright... 


1899 

A.  G.  Pace  (reissue) 

R.  Mewes 

F.  R.  Simms 

F.  R.  Simms  (reissue) 

E.  Fessard 

F.  Burger 

E.  Brillte 

W.  Jasper 

E.  J.  Fithian 

G.  Hirt  and  G.  Horn 

H.  Smith 

H.  C.  L.  Holden 

S.  N.  Pond 

A.  Howard 

F.  Hayot 

C.  J.  F.  Mollet- Fontaine  and 

L.  A.  C.  Letombe 

F.  Diirr 

F.  C.  Hirsch 

H.  N.  Bickerton  and  H.  W. 

Bradley 

J.  W.  and  P.  L.  Tygard 

E.  J.  Stoddard 

A.  Mahon 

S.  W.  Zent 

C.  A.  Anderson  and  E.  A. 

Ericksson.. ...... 


606,386 

613,417 
607,566 
610,682 
600,675 
601,210 
612,047 
608,298 

613,390 
612,756 
597,326 
607,878 
607,879 
607,276 
598,025 
615,052 
604,241 
600,754 

599,375 
607,580 
607,903 


".775 
633,878 
617,660 

11,763 
639,160 
623,980 
618,638 
626,206 
626,155 
630,083 

632,763 

622,047 

633,484 
617,529 
623,713 

634,063 

625,387 
622,469 

640,083 
619,004 
623,224 
625,180 
637, 3*7 

630,838 


PATENTS 


411 


J.  H.  Frew  ...............  623,361 

G.W.Lewis  ..............  621,110 

H.  J.  Perkins  .............  630,738 

P.  W.  Weeks  ..............  635,624 

J.  H.  Hamilton  ............  621,525 

J.  B.  Doolittle  ............  637,450 

C.  O.  White  ...............  634,679 

J.  A.  Harp  ................  628,316 

E.  H.  Korsmeyer  ..........  636,048 

E.  L.  Lowe  ...............  624,355 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth  ...........  620,554 

E.J.Woolf..  (627,219 

(  627,220 


C.  R.  Daellenbach. 


. 
(  632,918 

L.  B.  Doman  .............    625,839 

T.  C.  Kennedy  ............    621,572 

G.  W.  Lewis  ..............    620,941 

H.  P.  Maxim  ..............    620,602 

J.  A.  Secor  ...............    623,568 

F.  H.  Smith  ..............    636,298 

H.  Smith  .................    624,555 

E.  J.  Stoddard  ............    623,190 

E.  E.  Truscott  ............    617,372 

J.  Walrath  ................    632,859 

(  617,978 
A.  Winton  ...............  J  626,120 

(  636,606 
S.  A.  Hasbrouck  ...........    624,649 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth  ...........    620,431 

E.    E.    Allyne     and    R.    G. 

Anderson  ...............    622,876 

C.  R.  Alsop  ...............    618,972 

S.  A.  Ayres  ...............    632,888 

E.  and  W.  F.  Bauroth  .....    617,388 

C.  P.  Blake  ...............    631,003 

C.  W.  Bogart  .............    628,518 

J.  O.  Brown  ..............    635,294 

F.  Burger  .................    632,913 

W.  H.  and  J.  Butter  worth.  .    624,750 
O.  F.  Good  ...............    634,686 

E.  W.  Graef  ..............    622,891 

J.  D.  Hay  and  B.  M.  Bullock  632,814 

L.  J.  Hirt..  (620,926 

(  629,904 
L.  S.  Kirker  ..............    627,338 

H.  A.  Knox  ...............    627,857 

A.  Lee  ...................    634,529 

P.  Murray  ................    619,776 

A.  H.  Neale  ...............    639,683 


W.  S.  Sharpneck 


R.fSr.,andR.NuttallJr..  j  63J'224 

(  640,018 

G.  Palm 618,435 

C.  Quast 624,975 

E.  Rappe 637,975 

J.  W.  Raymond 636,451 

C.  C.  Riotte 616,974 

r628,i22 

J  628,123 

I  628,124 
^628,125 

H.  Smith 632,762 

G.  S.  Strong 637,298 

T.  J.  Sturtevant 634,509 

A.  A.  Vansickle 620,080 

G.  A.  Whitcomb. 634,654 

J.  Williams,  Jr 636,478 

E.  E.  Wolf 618,157 

C.  Hoerl 633,380 

G.  Dahlberg,  J.  Clicquennoi  j  633,338 

and  E.  Uhlin ]  633,339 

J.  H.  Hamilton 621,526 


1900 


J.  W.  Eisenhuth 


J.  L.  Baillie  and  P.  B.  Verity 
J.  F.  Craig..  .............. 

J.  F.  Duryea  .............. 

G.W.Lewis..  .  J 


T.  Malcolmson 

J.  A.  Secor 

C.  Sintz 

G.  A.  Tuerk 

A.  Heil 

W.  A.  Kope 


G.W.Lewis 


A.  L.  Navone  ............. 

A.  T.  Otto  ................ 

G.  S.  Shaw  ............... 

J.  Straszer  ................ 

P.  Robertson    and  C.  Mat- 

son  .................... 

B.  M.  Aslakson  ............ 

A.  J.  Frith.  .  .  ............. 

E.  Thomson  .............. 


640,890 

642,434 
642,949 
644,004 
646,399 
640,674 
640,675 
642,143 
640,711 
646,322 
641,659 

645.293 
642,043 

640,393 
640,394 
640,672 
640,673 
642,706 

645-044 
641,156 
640,237 

641,727 
644,566 
644,798 
642,176 


412 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


J.   E.  Thornton    and  J.  P. 

Lea  .................... 

A.  G.  New  ................ 

L.  Charon  and  F.  Manaut.  . 
J.  G.  Lepper  and  W.  F.  Dial  . 
A.  Bink  .................. 

E.  Fahl  .................. 

H.  A.  Frantz  .............. 

C.  O.  Heggem  ............. 

C.  W.  Hunt  ............... 

A.  J.  Martin  .............. 

E.  A.  Sperry  ............. 

H.  Stommel  .............. 

G.  E.  Whitney  ............ 

G.  E.  Whitney  and  H. 

Howard  ................ 

W.  O.  Worth  ............. 

A.  Olson  ................. 


F.  W.  Toedt, 


J.  W.  Lambert 


L.  Jones,  Jr. 

F.  J.  Macey. 
C.  R.  Alsop. 

G.  W.  Lewis, 


H.  F.  Probert ..j 

D.  Drawbaugh 

W.   J.    Perkins    and   C.    H. 

Blomstrom 

F.  R.  Simms 

W.  Banes 

E.  T.  Headech 

J.  C.  Anderson. .  .„ 

J.Craig,  Jr . 

G.  A.  Fleury 

C.  A.  Scott 

T.  Cascaden,  Jr.,  and  T.  C. 

Menges 

A.  H.  Goldingham 

H.  Sutton 

W.  J.  Woodward  and  D. 

Barckdall 

J.  H.  Atterbury 

W.  R.  Dow 

W.  W.  Gerber 

J.  S.  Losch 

C.  A.  Miller 

C.  K.  Pickles  and  N.  W. 

Perkins,  Jr 


644,951 

642,871       A.  Martini 

645,458       E.  Funke 

644,295      J.  McLean 

644,843       H.  Swain 

644,853       H.  Crouan 

644,590      J.  Wickstrom 

644,598       A.  Adamson 

641,514  H.  T.  and  H.  A.  Dawson. .  . 

641,313      V.  R.  Stewart 

643,258      H.  A.  Bertheau 

645,497      C.  E.  Belcher 

642,771      T.  Croil 

T.  B.  Dooley 

642,943      J.  Greffe 

645,378       R.  Hagen 

643,525       F.  K.  Irving 

640.667  F.  A.  La  Roche 

640.668  A.  H.  Overman  and  J.   H. 

645,398  Bullard 

643,513       R.  M.  Owen 

640,252      L.  W.  Ravenez 

640,392       E.  S.  Sutch 

640,395      O.  Waechtershaeuser 

642,366      J.  A.  Ostenberg 

642,562       W.  J.  McDuff 

643,087       O.  Owens 

L.  Hutchinson 

643,002  E.  S.  Haines 

642,167  W.  F.  Davis 

644,027  W.  H.  Cotton 

646,282  D.  M.  Tuttle 

651,741  J.  C.  Anderson 

650,525  C.  E.  Duryea 

651,966  W.  E.  Cary 

647,583  C.  Hautier 

F.  C.  Olin 

652,470  T.  B.  Royse 

650,583  C.  W.  Shartle  and  C.  E. 

650,736  Miller 

H.  Smith 

649,713  E.  C.  Wood 

652,382  G.  W.  Starr  and  J.  H.  Cogs- 

647,651  well 

652,539  S.  F.  Beetz 

650,789  C.  R.  Daellenbach 

652,544  O.  J.  Fairchild 

H.  A.  Bertheau 

652,724  F.  J.  Sproehnle 


650,549 
651,216 

651,875 
650,312 
646,452 


650,576 
651,062 
651,780 
650,661 
648,914 
650,816 
652>534 
651,323 
652,673 
646,982 
646,993 
652,278 

648,286 
652,486 
650,950 
648,059 

652,57! 
648,520 
650,266 
646,867 
648,689 
652,104 
648,122 
647,946 
649,778 
651,742 

649,441 
657,810 
656,020 
653,876 
653,040 

658,594 
657,576 
655.473 

657,140 
657,384 
653,379 
656,101 
655,186 
653,97r 


PATENTS 


413 


S.  Messerer 

V.  V.  Torbensen 

R.  H.  Little 

E.  Haynes   and   E.  Apper- 
son 

M.  F.  Marmonier 

R.  A.  Frisbie 

G.  E.  Hoyt 

W.  J.  Baulieu 

C.  L.  Mayhew 

J .  J .  Simmonds 

J.  Rambaud 

G.  Palm 

W.  E.  Simpson 

S.  W.  Rea 

F.  A.  Law 

L.  Witry 

G.  W.  Henricks 

R.  R.  von  Paller 

C.  H.  Blomstrom 

A.  C.   von   Fahnenfeld   and 

E.  S.  von  Wolfersgrun. .  . 

J.  G.  MacPherson 

G.  Kiltz 

R.  Diesel 

F.  A.  La  Roche 

I.  H.  Davis 

J.  G.  MacPherson 

H.  Wegelin 

G.  L.  Reenstierna 

A.  J.  New 

S.  A.  Hasbrouck 

H.  C.  Thamsen 

L.  S.   Clarke,    W.    Morgan, 

and  J.  G.  Heaslet 


C.  J.  Coleman < 


654,996   H  j  Lawson 


P.  J.  Collins, 


E.  P.  Cowles.... 
J. :  T.  Dougine... 
C.  E.  Duryea.  .  . 
J.  W.  Eisenhuth. 
C.  D.  P.  Gibson. 


656,823 

658,367 
657,226 

656,539 
657,934 
653,651 
652,909 
658,127 
654,356 
654,761 

658,595 
657-451 
653,353 
655,289 
653,957 
655,269 
657,055 

653,341 
655,407 

657,739 
654,140 
657,662 
657,760 
655,406 
654,693 
655,661 
656,143 
654,894 
654,818 


653,167 
653,168 
653,  l69 
653,^0 
653,172 
657,  5l6 
657,899 
658,238 

655,853 
656,389 
654,716 

655,329 
653,224 
656,396 
656,962 


H.  W.  Libbey 

C.  A.  Lieb 

J.  H.  Munson 

L.  J.  Phelps 

W.  Scott 

C.  T.  Shoup 

F.  E.  and  F.  O.  Stanley 

V.  V.  Torbensen.. 


G.  E.  Whitney, 


W.  S.  Halsey 

L.  H.  Nash 

J.  M.  Olsen 

E.  A.  Mitchell 

A.  A.  Williams 

W.  F.  Davis 

D.  E.  Barnard 

H.  D.  Weed 

P.  H.  Standish 

F.  G.  Bates 

G.  H.  Rogers 

C.  Bonjour 

F.  Diirr 

A.  Hayes. 

J.  W.  Lambert 

E.  T.  Birdsall 

J.  W.  Lambert 

G.  L.  Reenstierna 

A.  Johnson 

A.  and  E.  Boulier 

T.  M.  andF.  L.  Antisell. . .  . 

F.  C.  Dyckhoff 

J.  B.  Rodger 

L.  Charon  and  E.  Manaut.  . 

X.  de  la  Croix 

J-Day 

N.  A.  Guillaume 

M.  Flood 

F.  R.  Simms 

A.  J.  Signer 

T.  L.  and  T.  J.  Sturtevant.  . 
A.  J.  Signer 

G.  J.  Altham  and  J.  Beattie, 

Jr 

G.  A.  Timblin  (designs) 


654,797 
658,068 

654,741 
653,102 

653, J99 
653,879 
656,483 
658,046 
657>7n 
653-855 

•  652,940 
652,941 
652,942 

652,943 
652,944 
659,027 
658,858 
659,095 
658,993 
659,426 
660,073 
659,911 
659,944 
660,129 
660,482 
660,338 
660,412 
660,292 
660,954 
660,778 
660,786 
661,181 
661,276 
661,291 
661,439 
661,300 
661,369 
661,078 
661,235 
661,854 
661,559 
661,865 
662,189 
662,317 
662,315 
662,040 
662,155 

662,181 
33,592 


414 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


H.  B.  Steele 662,631 

P.  Swenson 662,507 

O.  F.  Good 662,718 

M.  S.  Napier 663,388 

H.  W.  Strauss 663,106 

A.  D.  Garretson 663,091 

G.  A.  Tuerk 663,798 

W.  H.  Cotton 663,653 

G.  Buck 663,725 

L.    S.    Clarke     and    J.    G. 

Heaslet 663,729 

F.  R.  Simms  and  R.  Bosch.  663,643 

H.  Smith 663,475 

C.  O.  White 664,110 

A.  T.  Otto 664,360 

L.  H.  Nash 664,025 

C.  O.  White 664,200 

J.  Dougill 664,134 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth 664,018 

H.  Sutton 664,689 

G.  Miari  and  F.  Giusti 664,661 

W.  K.  Freeman 664,632 

IQOI 

W.  Maybach 668,111 

C.  E.  Dawson 668,954 

S.  Miller 667,846 

H.  L.  Arnold 666,838 

S.  M.  Zurawski 668,250 

O.  B.  Johnson 669,416 

E.  Courvoisier 670,311 

C.  R.  Daellenbach 665,881 

L.  H.  Solomon 665,665 

L.  F.  Burger 666,260 

J.  Walrath 669,272 

E.  Thompson 669,737 

T.  McMahon 670,803 

W.  O.  Worth 670,550 

W.  E.  Simpson 667,590 

H.  F.  Walman 666,368 

C.  F.  Bergman 665,849 

H.  L.  Arnold 666,839 

W.  H.  Aldrich 668,617 

Kopp  &  Preston 674,421 

J.  A.  McLean 674,979 

G.  A.  Bronder 673,109 

J.  Eckhard 673,427 

W.  O.  Worth 673,809 

J.  Rourk 674,709 

M.  L.  Wood 676,523 


G.  L.  V.  Chauveau 

C.  C.  and  E.  A.  Riotte 

Schumm  &  Munzel 

J.  Doorenbos 

J.  A.  McLean 

H.  F.  Wallman 

H .  Schwarz 

J.  Sterba 

A.  T.  Stimson 

Tuck  &  Wassman 

E.  Butler 

E.  T.  Birdsall 

C.  W.  Weiss 

C.  E.  Duryea 

W.  J.  Pugh 

A.  F.  Bardwell 

S.  W.  Zent 

W.  S.  Sharpneck 

E.  N.  Dickerson 

C.  C.  Bramwell 

R.  R.  Darling 

M.  W.  Jamieson ]. 


Campbell  &  Hawkins 

B.  F.  Stewart 

V.  St.  John 

A.  C.  Wolfe 

O.  Snell 

F.  Reichenbach 

Toepel  &  Widmayer 

W.  B.  Cuthbertson 

J.  D.  McFarland 

A.  Tourand 

E.  J.  Wolf 

J.  Valentynowicz 

H.  Enge 

A.  Hayes 

F.  Burger 

W.  S.  Halsey 

M.  E..Durman 

H.  M.  McCall 

C.  L.  Mayhew 

W.  G.  Marr 

M.  F.  Bates 

J.  Badeker 

E.  Caillavet 

L.  Genty 

H.  F.  Wallman 

C.  A.  Hirth 

C.  A.  Marrder. . 


671,160 
671,934 
675.796 
672,615 
670,907 
677,048 
676,449 
672,432 
677,001 
682,003 

678,715 
679,410 
680,953 
682,606 
680,616 
680,907 
682,583 
680,985 
681,111 
678,823 
679,367 
681,704 
681,705 
682,788 
683,080 
683,152 
681,162 
677,898 
682,567 
682,822 

677,949 

682,385 
687,084 
683,886 
684,011 
686,806 
688,245 
684,743 
684,813 
687,678 
687,924 
688,426 
688,536 
689,351 
683,587 
689,791 
687,152 
688,907 
685,141 
685,722 


PATENTS 


415 


Box  &  G.  Labedan 686,801 

J.  H.  Reed 688,335 

S.  M.  Williams 688,566 

J.  W.  Plimpton 683,705 

1902 

F.  D.  Sweet 690,481 

A.  D.  Richardson 690,610 

H.  F.  Wallmann 690,542 

F.W.Toedt (691,083 

(  691,084 

E.  Thompson 691,017 

C.  Robinson 691,489 

W.  J.  Pugh 692,071 

W.  A.  Swan 692,218 

T.  Myers 693,529 

G.  V.  Petter 694,186 

W.  S.  &  C.  Hibbard 694,016 

A.  W.  Clayden 694,090 

H.  Junkers 694,552 

Freeman  &  Troop 694,735 

C.  F.  Lembke 694,557 

W.  F.  Davis 694,948 

W.  L.  Judson 695,731 

J.  D.  McFarland 696,251 

E.  Thompson 696,518 

P.  Burt 696,547 

J.  A.  McLean 697,649 

M.  N.  Hylland 698,285 

J.  V.  Rice 699,014 

R.  L.  Young 699,433 

F.  Durr 699,503 

J.  W.  Stanton 700,100 

W.  J.  Robb 700,241 

S.  S.  Rose 700,243 

H.  A.  Bertheau 700,295 

A.  L.  Kull 700,785 

J.  T.  Metcalfe 701,069 

D.  A.  Briggs 701,140 

F.  Reichenbach 701,505 

F.  L.  Nichols 702>375 

C.  W.  Kelsey 701,891 

J.  S.  Rogers 702,246 

J.  F.  Hobart 702,430 

F.  A.  L.  Sneckner 703,157 

S.  E.  Poole 703,463 

G.  Wood 703,511 

E.  B.  and  L.  S.  Cushman.  .  .  703,695 

G.  Gibbs 703,724 

J.  Lizotte 703,937 


F.  Lister 

C.  F.  Cope 

M.  J.  Klein 

C.  W.  Weiss 

W.  Bernhardt 

A.  T.  Brown 

M.  J.  Sullivan 

R.  L.  Barnhart 

G.  A.  Graves 

F.  R.  Simms  and  R.  Bosch. 

T.  Doherty 

A.  Vogt  and  M.  von  Reck- 

linghausen 

J.  Lizotte 

G.  S.  Andres 

G.  Erikson 

H.  H.  and  C.  B.  Segner.  .  .  . 
G.    Dahlberg,    J.    Clicquen- 

nov,  and  E.  Uhlin  (reissue) 
E.  Estcourt 

E.  T.  McKaig 

C.  O.  Hedstrom 

R.  Diesel 

J.  B.  Hicks 

G.    Dahlberg,    J.    Clicquen- 

nov,  and  E.  Uhlin  (reissue) 

A.  C.  Krebs 

W.  A.  Leonard 

C.W.Weiss 

W.  J.  Still 

A.  T.  Bossett 

W.  Heckert 

A.  McCahon 

H.  C.  Strang 

B.  C.  Van  Duzen 

F.  B.  Warring 

H.  A.  Gray 

C.  W.  Weiss 

P.  A.  Prestwich 

H.  E.  Barlow 

R.  C.  Marks 

G.  Westinghouse 

P.  F.  Maccallum 

L.  W.  Witry 

W.  G.  Wilson 

T.  S.  Glover 

C.  W.  Weiss 

H.  E.  Ebbs 

E.  G.  Shortt 

W.J.Wright. 


704,060 
704,618 
704,713 
704,995 
705,022 
705,201 
705,881 
705,897 

70S,996 
706,121 
706,167 

706,366 
706,492 
706,711 

706,733 
706,859 

12,021 

707,570 

707,793 
707,922 
708,029 
708,042 

12,024 
708,053 
708,236 
708,284 
708,502 
708,518 
708,637 
709,030 
709,060 
709,126 
709,428 
709,598 
710,026 
710,302 
710,312 
710,329 
710,385 
710,483 
710,647 
710,727 
710,771 
710,824 
710,911 


416 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


J.  F.  Hill 

E.  S.  Bowen 

C.  E.  Inglis 

L.  A.  C.  Letombe 

C.  O.  Hedstrom 

W.  L.  Judson », 

W.  M.  Power 

E.  B.  Parkhurst 

J.  McCoy 

H.  F.  Wallmann j 

J.  A.  Ostenberg J 

L.  B.  Smyser 

C.  Hendricks 

C.  A.  Anderson,  E.  A. 
Erickson,  and  J.  Wick- 
strom 

F.  Lagoutte 

J.  Hirst 

F.  G.  Bates  and  B.  A.  Will- 
iams...  

J.  W.  Hinchley 

C.  C.  Chamberlain 

J.  Lizotte 

W.  W.  Tuck  and  A.  Wass- 
mann 

B.  F.  Bain 

F.  E.  and  M.  E.  Vaughn 

C.  E.  Henriod 

E.  E.  Koken 

E.  J.  Stoddard 

1903 

F.  R.  McMullin 

J.  F.  Curtis  and  H.  F.  Miller. 

W.  P.  Flint.... 

W.  Langdon-Davies  and  A. 

Soames 

F.  A.  Law 

J.  A.  Ostenberg 

H.  F.  Wallmann 

P.  Robertson  and  C.  Matson 

H.  J.  Hurd 

C.  G.  Armesley 

C.  E.  Dawson 

H.  Gross 

B.  Niles 

L.  G.  Woolley 

H.  W.  Tuttle.. 


711,628 
711,652 
712,067 

7I2.393 
712,791 
712,805 
7I3.I47 
7I3«I94 
7*3.332 
713.366 

713.367 
7*3, 792 
713.793 
714,049 
714,180 

714,352 
7J4.353 
714,492 
7*4.799 

7*4,853 
714,902 

7I5,I96 
715,208 

716,314 
716,615 
716,792 

717,000 

7*7,417 
717,466 


717,902 
718,131 
7*8,334 

718,481 
718,482 
7i8,5n 
7l8,552 
718,658 

7i8,933 
719,072 
719,199 
719,326 
719,247 
719,407 
7I9>536 


J.  Willoughby 

W.  M.  Everett.. .  . 
H.  Morningstar. . . . 

A.  F.  Parks 

L.  A.  Frayer 

G.  A.  Ede 

C.  L.  Straub 

H.  W.  Tuttle 

C.  A.  Bailey 

L.  P.  Mooers 

E.  H.  Rousseau. . . 
J.  Cereghino 

A.  Evensen . . 


C.  E.  Duryea 

G.  W.  Euker 

B.  Garllus 

J.  W.  Packard 

C.  C.  Riotte  and  C.  R.  Rad- 
cliffe 

L.  F.  Burger 

D.  C.  Stover 

F.  W.  Toedt 

G.  Westinghouse     and     E. 
Rund 

L.  M.  Johnston 

T.  C.  Menges 

H.  Essex 

A.  H.  Dingman 

C.  W.Weiss 

J.  Dabled 

F.  W.  Rogler 

J.  B.  O'Donnell 

A.  M.  Zimmerman J 

W.  Roche 

J.  A.  Jenney 

A.  A.  Low 

R.  A.  Allsop 

H.  C.  Strang 

W.  A.  Whiling 

G.  A.  Goodson 

G.  A.  Goodson 

E.  W.  Graef 

C.  A.  Miller 

L.  F.  Splitt 

A.  L.  Riker 

A.  Krastin 

G.  A.  Gemmer 

L.  A.  C.  Letombe ..... 


719,547 
7*9,653 
719,836 

719,855 
720,126 
720,336 
720,752 
72°,759 
72°,995 
721,065 
721,238 
721,285 
721,872 

721.873 

722,005 
722,176 
722,223 
722,431 

722,629 
722,671 
722,767 

722,774 

722,787 
722,846 
723.54Q 
723,660 
723.844 
723.956 
724,239 
724,333 
724,606 
724,648 
724,649 

724,945 
725,087 
725,104 
725>I9I 
725.295 
725.528 
725,556 
725.644 
725,700 

725,74i 
725.789 
725.99° 
726,226 
726,671 
726,710 


PATENTS 


417 


W.  J..McVicker 

J.  McCluer 

J.  S.  Lang 

E.  Maerky, 

M.  H.  Rumpf 

G.    W.    Starr    and     J.    H. 

Cogswell 

V.  G.  Apple 

L.  M.  Foster.  , 

C.  O.  Hedstrom 

R.  A.  Mitchell  and  L.  L. 

Lewis 

F.  Reichenbach 

R.  D.  Chandler 

J.  H.Jones 

H.  M.  McCall 

J.   S.,   R.   D.,   W.   D.,   and 

H.  C.  Cundall 

W.  E.  Dow 

A.  C.  Mather 

J.  MacHaffie 

J.  C.  White 

J.  MacHaffie 

I.  Lanster 

C.  T.  Osborne 

R.  P.Thompson  and  E.  Koeb 

H.  F.  Wallmann.. 


W.  J.  Boemper 

A.  M.  Coburn 

S.  M.  Balzer 

F.  G.  Ericson 

M.  H.  Neff 

M.  Pivert 

E.  E.  Williams 

C.  E.  Sargent 

O.  B.  Perkins 

J.  M.  Smelser 

H.  Austin 

R.  Gumming 

K.  Schafferkotter 

T.  B.  Jeffery 

C.  Rossler 

A.  T.  Collier 

A.  F.  Evans 

H.    G.    Mears    and    H.    W. 

Aylward 

W.  J.  Wright 

W.  E.  Nageborn 

H.  F.  Wallmann.. 


726,731 
726,971 

727,158 
727.399 

727.455 

727,476 
727.564 

727.777 
727.944 

728,123 
728,297 

728,543 
728,724 
728,747 

728,873 
728,882 
728,950 
729,194 
729,467 

729.499 
729,613 
729,652 
729,700 

729.983 
729,984 

729.995 
730.345 
73°.433 
730,626 

730.683 
730.695 
731,001 

73!.!34 
731,218 

731.236 
731.265 
731,286 

731,507 
73i,78i 
73I,956. 
731,995 
732,343 

732,365 
732,683 

733,256 
733,350 


H.  A.  Gilman 

V.  R.  Nicholson.... 

G.  R.  Albaugh 

T.  Charlton 

A.  L.  Riker 

F.  Bryan  and  A.  H.  Bayley . 

J.  D.  McFarland,  Jr 

M.  Offenbacher . . 

P.  Gaeth  and  A.  Griebel. . . . 

A.  Krebs 

R.  Gumming 

G.  A.  Goodson j 

J.  M.  Stadel 

W.  H.Jones j 

F.  C.  Hirsch 

G.  C.  Eskholme 

W.  Walke 

W.  C.  Matthias 

O.    C.    Duryea    and    M.    C. 

White 

C.  Schrotz 

J.  M.  Wilson 

F.  H.  Gile 

J.  D.  McFarland,  Jr 

H.  H.  Mulherm 

E.  B.  and  L.  S.  Cushman.  .  . 

P.  Gervais 

L.  Jones 

A.  A.  and  D.  E.  Karcher.  .  . 

C.  A.  Wilkinson 

R.  Diesel  and  H.  Giildner.  . 

R.  J.  Voss 

W.  Brown 

C.  F.  Pearson 

B.  L.  Toquet 

C.  F.  Hitchcock 

P.  P.  G.  Hall,  Jr 

F.  T.  Cable 

J.  D.  Lyon 

F.  Charron    and    L.    Girar- 

dot 

W.  W.  Tuck,  A.  A.  Low, 

and  A.  Wassmann 

W.  J.  Wright 


J.  H.  Redfield 


T.  B.  Jeffery 
G.  B.  Fraley. 


733,384 
733,417 
733,894 
733,902 

734,138 
734,220 

734,237 
734,356 
734,415 
734,421 
734,827 
734,85i 
734,852 
734,986 
735,035 
735,036 
735,256 
735,483 
735,627 
735,67.4 

735,863 
735,912 
735,923 
735,964 
735.997 
736,i32 
736.224 

736,715 
736,734 
736,737 
736,807 

736,944 
737,048 
737,o69 
737,463 
737,532 
737,737 
737,923 
738,160 
738,690 

738,772 

738,860 
739,050 
739.219 
739.220 
740,020 
740,117 


418 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


C.  R.  James 

H.  Soeldner 

R.    P.    Thompson    and    E. 

Koeb 

G.  Joranson 

J.  W.  Sutton 

T.  L.  and  T.  J.  Sturtevant.  . 
C.  F.  Jaubert 

E.  C.  Richard 

J.  A.  Nickelson 

R.  Jensen 

C.  W.  Spousel 

F.  Sproehnle. 

H.  Guillon 

J.  W.  Packard 

J.  W.  Sutton 

F.  H.  Smith 

F.  C.  Hirsch 

C.  M.  Mohler 

O.  E.  Pehrsson 

J.  A.  McGee 

V.  J.  Emery 

R.    P.    Thompson    and    E. 

Koeb 

R.  P.  Thompson 

H.  Spiihl 

W.  J.  Wright 

R.  R.  Gaskell 

L.  Roedel 

G.  S.  Billman 

F.  C.  Hirsch 

C.  C.  Chamberlain 

O.  P.  Ostergren 

E.    E.    Arnold    and    A.    T. 

Kasley 

E.  N.  Dickerson 

G.  A.  Phail 

G.  C.  Blasdell 

W.  Remington 

M.  H.  Roberts 

E.  J.  Stoddard 

D.  F.  Graham  and  F.  A.  Fox 

H.  F.  Wallmann 

B.  V.  de  Sutter 

B.  G.  Holz 

J.  C.  Meredith......... 

R.  C.  Shepherd 

L.  S.  Chadwick 

W.   W.   Tuck,   A.   A.   Low, 

and  A.  Wassmann 


740,138 
740,195 

740,488 
740,571 
740,711 
740,781 
740,864 
740,924 
741,064 

74i,i38 
741,178 

74i,i79 
74i,329 
74i,365 
741,419 

741,559 
741,79! 
741,810 
741,824 
74i,923 
741,959 

74i,985 
741,986 
742,079 

742,143 
742,184 

742,493 
742,566 
742,651 
742,774 
742,799 

742,820 
743,o64 
743,097 
743.230 
743,327 
743,332 
743>405 

743,637 
743,78o 

743,977 
744,342 

744,38o 
744,418 
744,486 

744,822 


C.  N.  Cook 

H.  Sohnlein 

R.  Harris 

G.  Erikson 

J.  Geisslinger 

A.  G.  Melhuish 

C.  R.  Daellenbach 

C.  G.  Dean 

H.  Richter 

R.  B.  Weaver 

G.  Westinghouse 

L.  H.  Nash 

W.  C.  Weatherholt 

E.  Korting 

G.  J.  Murdock 

G.  J.  Rathbun 

A.  Krebs 

W.  C.  andS.  Hibbard 

W.  G.  Wilson 

W.  J.  Kurd 

A.  McCahon 

N.  Crane 

A.  A.   Low    and   A.   Wass- 
mann 

B.  Wright 

G.  McCadden . . 

W.  Remington 

H.  G.  Underwood 

W.  M.  Britton.  . 


1904 

W.  R.  Kahlenberg 

C.  K.  MacFadden 

E.  Prouty 

H.  H.  andC.  B.  Segner 

B.  Banta  and  C.  Mathews.. 
T.  S.  James 

E.  L.  Russell 

J.  W.  Swan 

S.  Cunningham 

W.  W.  Grant 

B .  Musgrave 

B.  H.  Pomeroy 

H.  Nelson 

F.  A.  Seitz 

A.  A.  Low 

J.  M.  Johanson 

R.  Dempster. 


744,857 
744,881 

745,055 
745,098 
745, 102 
745,215 
745,422 

:  745.423 
745,578 
745,669 
745,701 
745,703 
745,704 

746,133 

746,212 

746,342 
746,358 
746,377 
746,527 
746,701 
746,770 
746,840 
746,870 
746,925 

747,620 
747,828 
748,001 
748,01  r 
748,029 
748,045 


748,615 
748,763 
748,883 
748,990 

749,654 
749,864 

749,883 

75°, 3l8 
750,349 
75°,45r 
750,478 
750,489 
750,885 
750,901 
751,188 
751,292 
75I-472 


PATENTS 


419 


J.  L.  Lawrence   and  G.  W. 

Stewart 

A.  Vogt 

W.  E.  Dow 

J.  B.  and  J.  B.  Dunlop,  Jr.  . 

O.  P.  Ostergren 

G.  J.  Pelstring 

F.  Baltzinger 

J.  W.  Sutton 

L.  J.  Le  Pontois 

L.  H.  Fey 

A.  Vogt 

A.  G.  Ronan 

J.  W.  Sutton 

B.  Botkowski 

A.  A.  Low 

W.  W.  Tuck  and  A.  Wass- 

mann 

G.  W.  Fulkerson.  . 


G.  J.  Murdock. 


J.  M.  Stadel 

O.  B.  Thorson 

W.  J.  Hart 

L.  B.  Smyser 

R.  W.  Brockway  and  F.  J, 

Meckensturm 

D.  Glasby 

A.  P.  Brush 

H.  Richter ,. 

H.  B.  Nicodemus 

P.  H.  Brennan 

S.  S.  and  A.  Lewis 

J.  White 

H.  Lepape 

N.  L.  and  W.  W.  Tuck 

N.  A.  Wright 

C.  E.  Shambaugh 

D.  M.  Tuttle  etal 

H.  C.  Bergemann 

J.  A.  McGee 

J.  F.  Denison 

N.  E.  Hildreth 

C.  W.  Carrier 

H.  J.  Smith 

J.  J.  Murray 

A.  Rollason 

T.  Reichenbach 

W.  L.  Paul 

R.  Jardine 


752,273 
752,384 
752,386 
752,410 
752,412 
752,434 
752,479 
752,690 
752,832 
752,936 
753,003 
753,QI3 
753.226 


753.331 
753.483 
753,  510 
753.5H 
753.527 
753.647 
753.795 
753.8i4 

753.845 
753,876 
754,121 
754,i63 
754,385 
754,4i8 
754,466 
754,728 
754,929 
755,079 
755.093 
755,399 
755.8i7 
756,458 
756,687 

756,834 
756,961 
757,022 

757,o64 
757,215 
757,415 
757.636 

757.673 
758,076 


K.  J.  McMillen  and  M.  H. 

Robinson 758,189 

F.  H.  Marsh  and  C.  W. 

Nichols 758,373 

H.  R.  Palmer 757,632 

E.  L.  Russell 758,854 

F.  Dickinson 758,902 

R.    P.    Thompson    and     E. 

Koeb 758,943 

E.  Korting 758,959 

F.  E.  Pfister 759,011 

F.  A.  Gardner 759, 093 

J.  J.  MacMulkin 759,624 

D.  V.  Bagwell 759,953 

C.  O.  Lucas 760,462 

A.  J.  Fisher 760,531 

W.  M.  Jewell 760,631 

F.  E.  Schoonmaker 760,649 

M.    C.    White    and    O.    C. 

Duryea 760,673 

L.  H.  Nash 760,950 

D.  L.  Doering 761,363 

F.  K.  Landgraf 761,510 

J.    E.    Pfeffer    and    R.    H. 

Layton 761,539 

H.  M.  McCall 761,599 

F.  A.  Seitz 761,613 

F.  Charron  and  L.  Girardot  .  761 ,656 

C.  E.  Van  Norman 761,927 

A.  Leingartner 762,421 

A.  J.  Bradley 762,574 

L.  Cordonnier 762,577 

R.  B.  Hain 762,708 

N.  L.  and  W.  W.  Tuck 762,960 

L.  F.  Washburne 762,965 

J.  D.  Wheeler 763,133 

R.  Algrin 763>535 

D.  Ogden 763,626 

C.  A.  Marlitt 763,773 

H.  C.  Waite 763,819 

W.  B.  Hayden 764,356 

G.  F.  Murphy 764,614 

J.  C.  Crocker 764,840 

E.  Forg 764,998 

C.  E.  Shumway 765,047 

B.  M.  Aslakson 765,159 

C.  R.  Daellenbach 765,357 

J.  D.  Maxwell 765,628 

P.  Murray 765,629 

J.  F.  Hathaway 765-777 


420 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


F.  L.  Chamberlin 


H.    M.    Rawl     and     D.    L. 

Reehl 

A.     Buchner     and      E.     P. 

McClure 

F.  Reynolds 

P.  Schmitz 

A.  A.  Low 

A.  S.  Dickison 

N.  E.  Egge 

L.  Bayer 

C.  J.  Everett 

G.  S.  Billman 

W.  W.  Tuck  et  al 

H.  C.  Folger 

E.  Korting 

H.  Soeldner 

L.  D.  Toliver 

D.  Clerk 

M.  F.  Bates 

D.  Roberts  et  al 

H.  Sohnlein 

W.  Roche 

J.  W.  Swan 

M.  Beck 

E.  C.  Richard 

O.  P.  Ostergren 

W.  C.  Tompsett 

G.    K.    Benner    and    H.    B. 

Nicodemus 

S.  E.  Doane 

P.  P.  G.  Hall,  Jr 


j  765,814       D.  R.  Morrison 771,881 

(765,880       C.  W.  Little , 772,160 

F.  Reaugh 772,178 

766,116       W.  B.  Hayden 772,235 

C.  H.  Wisner 772,856 

766,166       S.  S.  and  A.  Lewis 773,021 

766,525       R.  and  J.  Cooper 773,062 

767,369       F.  E.  Hall 773,206 

767,483       F.  M.  Rites 773-339 

767,549       R.  Miller 774,392 

767,556       C.  W.  Hart 774,752 

768,110       J.  F.  Duryea 775,103 

768,436       F.  Henriod-Schweizer 775,120 

768,506       J.  S.  Losch 775,243 

768,641       P.  Schmit 775,314 

768,793       P.  J.  Shouvlin .  775,385 

768,807       C.  and  W.  Hibbard., 775,819 

768,866       J.  S.  Losch. 775,908 

769,363       J.W.Packard 775, 932 

769,589       M.  H.  Daley 776,118 

770,212       E.  P.  Lamb 776,406 

770,388  J.V.  Ebel  and  W.J.  Hudson  776,586 

770,872       C.  E.  Sterne 776,700 

770,927       F.  J.  Rochow 776,800 

771,028       G.  Marx,  Jr 777, 295 

771,037       W.  I.  Spangler 778,082 

771,095      J.  Reek 778,146 

771,320       A.  M.  Sweder. . . 778,154 

771,511       J.  B.  Morrison 778,261 

H.  F.  Wallmann 778,289 

771,601       K.  Reinhardt 778>375 

771,616       F.  Lamplough 778,417 

771,631       F.  Reichenbach 778,707 


1905  to  September  ist 


G.  A.  Brouder 779,116 

H.  Devlin 779,207 


A.  Bougault. . 
H 


779.256 


M.  Svebilius 779,328 

E.  T.  McKaig 779,49° 

N.  W.  Traviss 779,509 

F.  J.  Miller 779, 727 

F.  W.  Hagar 779, 778 

A.   N.   Parnall    and    E.    W. 

Coryell 780,013 

R.  G.  V.  Mytton 780,119 

J.  G.  Callan 780,549 


A.  E.  Doman j  7»o,555 

(  780,559 
S.  F.  and  C.  E.  Burlingame    780,635 

P.  F.  Maccallum 780,722 

A.  Radovanovic 780,812 

E.  R.  Hewitt 781,064 

T.  Wright 781 ,484 

P.  C.  and  E.  R.  Hewitt 781,604 

J.  W.  Kales 781,607 

E.  J.  Stoddard 781,751 

A.  Vogt 781,923 

S.  J.  Webb 782,205 


PATENTS 


421 


C.    E.    Sterne     and     S.    J. 

Davis 782,471 

W.  B.  Hayden 782,502 

E.  F.  Hulbert 782,659 

J.  A.  Arthur 782,812 

C.  R.  Daellenbach 783,104 

A.  G.  &  C.  R.  Daellenbach.  783,106 

E.  Martignoni 783,121 

A.  E.  Taylor 783,158 

A.  Hardt 783,194 

C.  R.  Twitchell 783,336 

H.  Holzwarth 783,434 

C.  E.  Sargent 783,983 

T.  L.  and  T.  J.  Sturtevant.  .  784,191 

G.  McCadden 784,626 

I.   E.   Hendman    and   J.  J. 

Albright 784,677 

C.  J.  Rousseau  and  E.  C.  -j  784,759 

Ferris \  784,760 

C.  A.  Sawtelle 784,808 

C.  W.  Weiss 784,818 

A.  Buchner  and  E.  P. 

McClure 784,917 

H.  J.  Leighton 784,949 

F.  A.  Haselwander 785,166 

W.  C.  and  M.  W.  Risbridger.  785,229 

(785,387 
N.  L.  and  W.  W.  Tuck. .  .  .  j  785,388 

'785,389 

A.  M.  Melson 785,428 

A.  Krebs 785,558 

E.  A.  Rutenber 785,684 

N.  L.  and  W.  W.  Tuck 785,687 

M.  E.  Clark 785,713 

L.    D.    Kinzig    and     G.    C. 

Riber 785,809 

J.  D.  Termaat  and  L.  J. 

Monahan 785,922 

J.  W.  Packard 787,212 

R.  A.  Mitchell  and  L.  L. 

Lewis 787,341 

A.  Willmer 787,487 

C.  W.  Weiss 787,709 

N.  W.  Hartman 787,918 

R.    H.    Layton    and    J.    E. 

Pfeffer 787,925 

D.  R.  Morrison 788,057 

C.  S.  Dutton 788,253 

F.  A.  Haselwander 788,402 

W.  S.  Browne 788,579 


W.  J.  Perkins 788,594 

H.  J.  Podlesak 788,595 

J.  P.  Seaton 788,732 

A.  F.  Bauer 788,748 

G.  A.  West 788,868 

O.  Minton 788,929 

W.  C.  Weatherholt 788,972 

L.  Mertens 789,047 

L.   Brandenburg  and  C.   N. 

Hiester 789,079 

F.  E.  Youngs 789,246 

H.  Gerdes 789,321 

H.  Richter 789,382 

A.  Herz 789,426 

H.  Richter 789,673 

E.  R   Langford 789,921 

G.  A.  Aldrich 790,018 

H.  B.  Steele 790,325 

J.  D.  Maxwell. 790,374 

C.  B.  Harris 790,833 

T.  L.  and  T.  J.  Sturtevant.  .  790,856 

F.  K.  De  la  Saulx 790,925 

J.  Bartosik, 791,071 

D.  E.  Barnard 791,126 

W.  L.  Breath 791,447 

E.  C.  Richard 791,501 

C.  A.  Dreisbach 79 1 ,75 7 

A.  M.  Brown 791,871 

W.  E.  Clifton 792,119 

R.  E.  Olds 792,158 

C.  W.  Weiss 792,300 

C.  D.  Shain 792,670 

D.  G.  Williams 792,804 

J.  E.  Green 792,894 

F.  L.  Perry 793, 091 

W.  J.  Perkins 793, 223 

F.  X.  Atzberger 793,263 

H.  E.  B.  Blomgren 793,270 

V.  R.  Browning 793-347 

W.  B.  Hayden 794,01 1 

J.  W.  Seal 794,192 

W.  J.  Bell 794,275 

C.  C.  Riotte 794,683 

J.  F.  Merkel 794,727 

E.  Westman 794,826 

R.  O.  Le  Baron 793,842 

C.  E.  Sargent 795,236 

A.  Markman 795,295 

F.  A.  Thurston 795,459 

W.  B.  Hayden 795,698 


422                     GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 

J.  L.  Bogert 796,106      F.  C.  Goddard 797.57* 

A.  J.  Postans 796,349       E.  P.  Gray 797,681 

A.  Houkowsky 796,425      J.  B.  Moreland 797,972 

A.    Wassmann    and    A.    A.  M.  Ferrero  and  A.  Franch- 

Low 796,479  etti 798,328 

E.  Seller  and  F.  Hottinger.    796,680      W.  H.  Schoonmaker 798,366 

H.  O.  Westendarp 796,686       A.  Winton .    798,553 

C.  A.  Carlson 797.555 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND  OIL-ENGINE   BUILDERS   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

AND    CANADA 


Abenaque  Machine  Works, 
Westminster  Station,  Vt. 

Acme  Oil  Engine  Co., 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Acme  Road  Machinery  Co., 
Frankfort,  N.  Y. 

Adams-McCoy  Electric  Co. , 
Muscatine,  Iowa. 

Advance  Electric  Co., 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Advance  Machinery  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Advance  Mfg.  Co., 
Hamilton,  Ohio. 

Ajax  Iron  Works, 
Corry,  Pa. 

Akron  Engineering  Co., 
Akron,  Ohio. 

Alamo  Mfg.  Co., 
Alamo,  Mich. 

Alberger  Company, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Alexander  &  Crouch, 
Chicago",  111. 

Allis-Chalmers  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Allman  Gas  Engine  &  Mach.  Co. 

New  York  City. 

Alma  Mfg.  Co., 
Alma,  Mich. 

American  &  British  Mfg.  Co., 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 

American  Diesel  Engine  Co., 
New  York  City. 


American  Engineering  Co., 

Springfield,  Ohio. 
American  Gas  Engine  Co., 

New  York  City. 
American  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Sheboygan,  Wis. 
American  Machine  Co., 

Wilmington,  Del. 
American  Well  Works, 

Aurora,  111. 
Anderson  Tool  Co., 

Anderson,  Ind. 
Angola  Engine  &  Foundry  Co., 

Angola,  Ind. 
Arnold's  Son,  G.  W., 

Ionia,  Mich. 
Ash,  Harper  &  Co., 

Lyons,  Mich. 
Ashurst  Press  Drill  Co., 

Havana,  111. 
Aultman  Co., 

Canton,  Ohio. 
Aurora  Automatic  Mach.  Co., 

Aurora,  111. 
Austin  &  Son, 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Austin  Mfg.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Automatic  Machine  Co., 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Averill,  F.  E., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Ayres  Gasoline  Engine  Works, 

Saginaw,  W.  S.,  Mich. 


Bachus  Water  Motor  Co. 
Newark,  N.  J. 


423 


424 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Baldwin  Machine  Works, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Barker,  C.  L., 
Norwalk,  Conn. 

Bates  &  Edmonds  Motor  Co., 
Lansing,  Mich. 

Bauroth  Bros., 
Springfield,  Ohio. 

Baylis  Co., 

New  York  City. 

Bay  State  Machine  Co., 
Erie,  Pa. 

Beach,  O.  B., 

Stony  Creek,  Conn. 

Beaver  Machine  Co., 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Beaver  Mfg.  Co., 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Beilfuss  Motor  Co., 
Lansing,  Mich. 

Benton  &  Son, 
La  Crosse,  Wis. 

Bessemer  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Grove  City,  Pa.    • 

Best  Mfg.  Co., 
San  Leandro,  Cal. 

Beverly  Engine  &  Machine  Co. 
Beverly,  Mass. 

Blum  Bros.  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Borden  &  Selleck  Co., 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Bovaird  &  Co., 
Bradford,  Pa. 

Bo  wen  Electric  Co., 
Providence,  R.  I. 

Braden  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Butler,  Pa. 

Brass  Foundry  &  Heating  Co., 
Peoria,  111. 

Brennan  Motor  Co., 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


Bridge  City  Construction  Co., 

Logansport,  Ind. 
Bridgeport  Motor  Co., 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Brooklyn  Gas  &  Gasoline  Engine  Co., 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  City. 
Brooklyn  Railway  Supply  Co., 

Stamford,  Conn. 
Brown-Cochran  Co., 

Lorain,  Ohio. 
Brown  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Columbus,  Ohio. 
Bruce-Meriam- Abbott  Co., 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 
B  runner,  Chas., 

Peru,  111. 
Bryan  Mfg.  Co., 

Baltimore,  Md. 
Buck,  J.  W., 

Davenport,  Iowa. 
Buckeye  Engine  &  Foundry  Co., 

Joliet,  111. 
Buckeye  Mfg.  Co., 

Anderson,  Ind. 
Budd,  L.  M., 

Saginaw,  Mich. 
Buffalo  Engine  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Buffalo  Gasoline  Motor  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Buick  Mfg.  Co., 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Burger  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Ft.  Wayne,  Ind. 
Burlingame,  S.  C.,  &  Co., 

Providence,  R.  I. 
Burrill,  G.  T.,  &  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Byron  Jackson  Machine  Works, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 


Caldwell,  F.  R.,  &  Co., 

Bradford,  Pa. 
Caldwell,  H.  W.,  &  Son, 

Chicago,  111. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINE  BUILDERS 


425 


Callahan,  W.  P.,  &  Co., 

Dayton,  Ohio. 

Camden  Anchor- Rockland   Machine 
Co., 

Rockland,  Me. 
Canada  Cycle  &  Motor  Co., 

Toronto,  Ont.,  Can. 
Canfield,  P.  R., 

Binghamton,  N.  Y. 
Capital  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Carl,  Anderson  &  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Carlin  Mach.  &  Supply  Co., 

Allegheny,  Pa. 
Carlisle  &  Finch  Co., 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Carr  &  Sprague, 

Fowlerville,  Mich. 
Carse  Bros.  &  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Cascaden  Mfg.  Co., 

Waterloo,  Iowa. 
Central  City  Iron  Works, 

Stevens  Point,  Wis. 
Central  Iron  Works, 

Quincy,  111. 
Challenge  Wind  Mill  &  Feed  Mill  Co., 

Batavia,  111. 

Chambers,  G.  S.,  &  Co., 
Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Champion  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 

Chapman,  H.  L., 
Marcellus,  Mich. 

Charter  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Sterling,  111. 

Chase  Machine  Co., 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Chicago  Flexible  Shaft  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Chicago  Scale  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

Chicago  Water  Motor  &  Fan  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 


Chicago  Wheel  &  Mfg.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Church,  S.  B., 

Boston,  Mass. 
Church,  S.  B., 

Seymour,  Conn. 
Church  Mfg.  Co., 

Adrian,  Mich. 
Clay  Christie  Co., 

Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 
Clifton  Motor  Works, 

Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
Clinton  Novelty  Iron  Works, 

Clinton,  Iowa. 
Clizbe  Bros.  Mfg.  Co., 

Plymouth,  Ind. 
Clot  &  Co., 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Coffee,  R.  W.,  &  Sons, 

Richmond,  Va. 
Colborne  Mfg.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Collins,  F.  F.,  Mfg.  Co., 

San  Antonio,  Tex. 
Columbus  Machine  Co., 

Columbus,  Ohio. 
Connecticut  Valley  Mfg.  Co., 

Center  Brook,  Conn. 
Continental  Engine  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Cook  Mfg.  Co., 

Albion,  Mich. 
Cooley  Mfg.  Co., 

Waterbury,  Vt. 

Cooper  Machine  Co., 
Saltsburg,  Pa. 

Cormack  &  Co., 
Rockford,  111. 

Cornell  Machine  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Cornwell,  R.  M.,  Co., 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Crescent  Machine  &  Tool  Co., 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Crest  Mfg.  Co., 

Cambridge,  Mass. 


426 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Crown  Machine  Works, 
Dayton,  Ohio. 

Curtis,  G.  H.,  Mfg.  Co., 
Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 

Cushman  Motor  Co., 
Lincoln,  Neb. 

Custer  Mfg.  Co., 
Marion,  Ind. 


Daimler  Motor  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Davis  Gasoline  Engine  Works, 

Waterloo,  Iowa. 
Dayton  Globe  Iron  Works, 

Dayton,  Ohio. 

D.  C.  &  U.  Gas  Engine  Co., 
McDonald,  Pa. 

Dean- Waterman  Co., 

Covington,  Ky. 
Deeming  &  Co., 

Salem,  Ohio. 

Delano,  E.  A., 
Chicago,  111. 

De  La  Vergne  Machine  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Delaware  Machine  Works, 
Wilmington,  Del. 

De  Mooy  Bros., 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Dempster  Mill  Mfg.  Co., 
Beatrice,  Neb. 

Denison,  Julian  F., 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Des  Moines  City  Gas  Engine  Works, 
Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Des  Moines  Gas  Engine  &  Elec.  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Detroit  Brass  &  Novelty  Co., 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Detroit  Motor  Works, 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Detroit  River  Gasoline  Engine  Works, 
Detroit,  Mich. 


Dimmer  Machine  Works, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Dingfelder,  Max, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Dirigo  Engine  Works, 

Portland,  Me. 
Dissinger,  C.  H.  A.,  &  Bro., 

Wrightsville,  Pa. 
Doman,  H.  C., 

Oshkosh,  Wis. 
Dominion  Motor  &  Machine  Co., 

Toronto,  Ont.,  Can. 
Downie  Pump  Co., 

Downieville,  Pa. 
Drahanousky  Motor  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Dunn,  Walter  E., 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y. 
Dunton  Chenery  Co., 

Portland,  Me. 

E 
Eagle  Bicycle  Mfg.  Co., 

Torrington,  Conn. 

East  Davenport  Machine  &  Novelty 
Works, 

Davenport,  Iowa. 
Economist  Gas  Engine  Co., 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Ellington  Mfg.  Co., 

Quincy  and  Chicago,  111. 
Ellsworth  Iron  Works, 

Ellsworth,  Wis. 
Elyria  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Elyria,  Ohio. 
Enterprise  Machine  Co., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Eureka  Mfg.  Co., 

Chariton,  Iowa. 
Evans  Mfg.  Co.,  Ltd., 

Butler,  Pa. 
Ewald  Die  &  Machine  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 


Fairbanks  Co., 
New  York  City. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINE  BUILDERS  427 


Fairbanks-Grant  Mfg.  Co., 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Fairfield  Motor  Co., 

Fairfield,  Conn. 
Fairmount  Engineering  Works, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Farquhar,  A.  B.,  &  Co., 

York,  Pa. 
Farrar  &  Trefts, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Fay  &  Bowen  Engine  Co., 

Auburn,  N.  Y. 
Fay  &  Bowen  Engine  Co., 

Geneva,  N.  Y. 
Fidelity  Machine  Works, 

Santa  Paulo,  Cal. 
Field,  Brundage  &  Co., 

Jackson,  Mich. 
Flickinger  Iron  Works,  Inc., 

Bradford,  Pa. 
Flint  &  Walling  Mfg.  Co., 

Kendallville,  Ind. 
Foos  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Springfield,  Ohio. 
Force  &  Briggs, 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Fort  Wayne  Foundry  &  Machine  Co. 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 
Foss  Gasoline  Engine  Co., 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. 
Fostoria  Foundry  &  Machine  Co., 

Fostoria,  Ohio. 
Fox,  John,  &  Co., 

Covington,  Ky. 
Franklin  Supply  Co., 

Franklin,  Pa. 
Fremont  Foundry  &  Machine  Co., 

Fremont,  Neb. 
Frontier  Gasoline  Motor  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


Gade  Bros.  Mfg.  Co., 
Iowa  Falls,  Iowa. 


Gardner  Elevator  Co., 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Garfield,  Richardson  &  Co., 

Algona,  Iowa. 
Gas  Engine  &  Power  Co., 

Morris  Heights,    N.  Y.  City. 
Gates,  E.  L.,  Mfg.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

Geiser  Mfg.  Co., 

Waynesboro,  Pa. 
Gemmer  Engine  Co., 

Marion,  Ind. 
General  Power  Co., 

New  York  City. 
Gere  Yacht  &  Launch  Works, 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Ghormley   Gas   &   Gasoline    Engine 
Co., 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Gibson,  Alex.  T., 

West  Winfield,  N.  Y. 
Gidley,  H.  E.,  &  Co., 

Penetanguishene,  Ont.,  Can. 

Gillespie,  L.  W.,  &  Co., 
Marion,  Ind. 

Globe  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Globe  Iron  Works, 

Stockton,  Cal. 
Globe  Iron  Works  Co., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Globe  Mach.  &  Supply  Co., 

Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
Godshalk,  E.  H.,  &  Co., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Goetz-Coleman  Mfg.  Co.. 

New  Albany,  Ind. 

Golden  State  &  Miners  Iron  Works, 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Goldie  &  McCulloch  Co., 

Gait,  Ont.,  Can. 
Good  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Dayton,  Ohio. 
Goodman,  W.  A., 

Waterloo,  Iowa. 


428 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Goodwin,  Thos.  W.,  &  Co., 
Norfolk,  Va. 

Goold,  Shaplery  &  Muir  Co., 
Brantford,  Ont.,  Can. 

Grand  Rapids  Gas  Engine  &  Yacht 

Co., 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

Grant,  Ferris  Co., 
Troy,  N.  Y. 

Grant  Mfg.  &  Machine  Co., 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Graves  Motor  Mfg.  Co., 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Gray  &  Prior  Machine  Co., 
Hartford,  Conn. 

Green  Bay  Machine  Co., 
Green  Bay,  Wis. 

Greendale  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Worcester,  Mass. 


H 


Hagan  Gas  Engine  &  Mfg.  Co., 
Winchester,  Ky. 

Hall  Bros.  Gas  Engine  Works, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Halliday  Mfg.  &  Engineering  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Hamilton  Motor  Works, 
Hamilton,  Ont.,  Can. 

Hardy  Motor  Works, 
Port  Huron,  Mich. 

Hart-Parr  Company,  manufacturers 
of  Internal  Combustion  Engines, 
Gasoline  and  Oil, 
Charles  City,  Iowa. 
Hartig  Standard  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Newark,  N.  J. 

Hawkeye  Mfg.  Co., 
Tama,  Iowa. 

Hawkins  Mfg.  Co., 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Haynes  &  Apperson  Co., 
Kokomo,  Ind. 


Heinel,  H.  A.,  &  Co., 
Wilmington,  Del. 

Hendricks  Novelty  Co., 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Henshaw,  Buckley  &  Co., 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Hercules  Gas  Engine  Works,  Inc., 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Hicks,  J.  L., 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Hicks  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Higginsbottom,  S.  H., 
Saginaw,  Mich. 

Hill  Machine  Co., 

Anderson,  Ind. 
Hinds,  Thos., 

Malone,  N.  Y. 
Hoff,  Joseph  B., 

Lake  wood,  N.  J. 

Hoggson,  Pettis  &  Co., 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Holbrook,  C.  D., 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Holly  Motor  Co., 
Bradford,  Pa. 

Holt,  S.  L.,  &Co., 
Boston,  Mass. 

Homan,  J.  &  E., 
New  York  City. 

Horton,  Edw., 
Saginaw,  Mich. 

Howe,  A.  D.,  Co., 
Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

Howe  Engine  Works, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Howe  Scale  Co., 
Boston,  Mass. 

Hubbard  Motor  Co., 
Middletown,  Conn. 

Humphreys,  F.  J., 
Skaneateles,  N.  Y. 

Hunt  &  Connel  Co., 
Scranton,  Pa. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINE  BUILDERS 


429 


Hutchinson  Mach.  &  Foundry  Co., 
Hutchinson,  Minn. 

I 

International  Harvester  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
International  Motor  Co., 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 
International  Power  Vehicle  Co., 

Stamford,  Conn. 


Jackson  Byron  Mach.  Works, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Jackson  Engine  &  Motor  Co., 

Jackson,  Mich. 
Jager,  C.  J.,  Co., 

Boston,  Mass. 
Jamieson,  W.  W.,  &  Co., 

Warren,  Pa. 
Jefferson  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Jefferson,  Iowa. 
Jeffery,  Thos.  B.,  &  Co., 

Kenosha,  Wis. 
Jessen,  Jas., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Johnson  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co., 

Reading,  Pa. 
Johnston  Gasoline  Motor  Co., 

Manchester,  N.  H 

K 

Kaestner,    Chas.,    Mfg.    Co.,    Manu- 
facturers of  Automobile  Motors, 
Transmissions,     Mine     Locomo- 
tives,   and    Mining    Machinery, 
operated  by  Gasoline  Power, 
South  Bend,  Ind. 
Kahlenberg  Bros., 

Two  Rivers.  Wis. 
Kalamazoo  Railway  Supply  Co., 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. 
Kane,  Thos.,  &  Co., 

Chicago,  111 

Kansas  City  Hay  Press  Co., 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 


Keim,  John  R., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Kelly,  O.  S.,  Western  Mfg.  Co., 

Iowa  City,  Iowa. 
Keystone  Gas  Engine  Co., 

New  Brighton,  Pa. 
Keystone  Iron  Works, 

Fort  Madison,  Iowa. 
King  Gas  &  Gasoline  Engine  Co. 

Battle  Creek,  Mich. 
Kinnard  Press  Co., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Kinne,  W.  A., 

New  Britain,  Conn. 
Kiser  &  Shellaberger, 

Dayton,  Ohio. 
Kling  Bros., 

Chicago,  111. 
Knight  Mfg.  Co., 

Canton,  Ohio. 
Kowalsky,  J., 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Kroger,  J.  M., 

Stockton,  Cal. 
Kumberger  &  Vreeland, 

New  York  City, 


Lackawanna  Mfg.  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Lacy  Bros., 

Toledo,  Ohio. 
Lake  Shore  Engine  Works, 

Marquette,  Mich. 
Lamb  Boat  &  Engine  Co., 

Clinton,  Iowa. 
Lambert  Gas  &  Gasoline  Engine  Co. 

Anderson,  Ind. 
Lammert  &  Mann, 

Chicago,  111. 
Lansing  Boiler  &  Engine  Works, 

Lansing,  Mich. 
Latham  Machinery  Co., 

Chicago.  111. 
Lathrop,  J.  W., 

Mystic,  Conn. 


430 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Laubert  &  Nonnemacher, 

Youngstown,  Ohio. 
Lauson,  C.  P.  &  J., 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Lawrence  Machine  Co., 

Lawrence,  Mass. 
Lazier  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Leader  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Dayton,  Ohio. 
Leland  &  Falconer, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Lennox  Machine  Co., 

Marshalltown,  Iowa. 
Leonard  Engine  Co., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lester  &  Brundage, 

Albion,  Mich. 
Light  Inspection  Co., 

Hagerstown,  Ind. 
Limbacher  &  Ternes, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Lizotte,  Jos.,  &  Co., 

Quincy,  Mass. 
Longtime  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Williamspcrt,  Pa. 
Loomis,  F.  W., 

New  York  City. 
Losch  Engine  Co., 

Reading,  Pa. 
Lowell  Model  Co., 

Lowell,  Mass. 
Lozier  Motor  Co., 

Plattsburg,  N.  Y. 

Luitwieler  Pumping  Engine  Co.,  Gas 
and  Oil  Pumping  Engines  for 
Railroad  and  Water  Works, 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Lunt,  Moss  &  Co., 

Boston,  Mass. 
Lyons  Engine  Co., 

Lyons,  Mich. 

M 

Mackey  Engine  Co., 
Pontiac,  Mich. 


Mansfield  Machine  Works, 
Mansfield,  Ohio. 

Marine  Engine  and  Machine  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Marinette  Iron  Works  Mfg.  Co., 
Marinette,  Wis. 

Marquette  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Chicago  Heights,  111. 
Mathews  &  Co., 

Bascom,  Ohio. 

Mayer  Bros., 

Mankato,  Minn. 
Mayor,  Lane  &  Co., 

New  York  City. 
Maywood  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

Maywood  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co., 
Maywood,  111. 

McClure-Buckner  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

McDonald  &  Erickson, 

Chicago,  111. 
McDuff,  W.  J., 

Tilton,  N.  H. 

McElwaine  &  Co., 
Bradford,  Pa. 

McKenzie,  D.,  &  Co., 
London,  Ont.,  Can. 

McLachlan  Gasoline  Engine  Co., 
Toronto,  Ont.,  Can. 

McMyler  Mfg.  Co., 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Mead  Gas  Engine  Co. , 
Providence,  R.  I. 

Merian- Abbott  &  Co., 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Messenger  Mfg.  Co., 

Tatamy,  Pa. 
Metzger,  Wm.  F., 

Detroit,  Mich. 

Mianus  Motor  Works, 
Mianus,  Conn. 

Michigan  Brick  &  Tile  Machine  Co., 

Morenci,  Mich. 
Michigan  Mfg.  Co., 

Ypsilanti,  Mich. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINE  BUILDERS 


431 


Michigan  Motor  Co., 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Michigan  Yacht  &  Power  Co., 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Middletown  Machine  Co., 

Middletown,  Ohio. 
Mietz,  A., 

New  York  City. 
Miller  &  Richard, 

Toronto,  Ont.,  Can. 
Miller  Improved  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Springfield,  Ohio. 
Milwaukee  Rice  Machinery  Co., 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Miner  &  Peck  Mfg.  Co., 

New  Haven,  Conn. 
Minneapolis  Brass  &  Iron  Mfg.  Co., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Model  Gas  Engine  Works, 
Auburn,  Ind. 

Modern  Elevator  Co., 
Coif  ax,  Wash. 

Mohler  &  De  Gress, 

L.  I.  City,  New  York  City. 
Moline  Pump  Co., 

Moline,  111. 
Monarch  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Montague  Iron  Works  Co., 
Montague,  Mich. 

Moore,  C.  A., 

Westford,  Mass. 
Morgan  Construction  Co., 

40  Exchange  Place,  New  York. 
Morton  Gasoline  Traction  Co., 

York,  Pa. 
Motor  Car  Power  &  Equipment  Co., 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Motor  Engine  Co., 

Mariner's  Harbor,  S.  I. 
Motor  Vehicle  Power  Co., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Muncie  Gas  Engine  &  Supply  Co., 

Muncie,  Ind. 
Murray  &  Tregurtha  Co., 

South  Boston,  Mass. 


N 

Nadig,  Chas.  H.,  &  Bro.  Mfg.  Co., 

Allentown,  Pa. 
Nagel,  Dr.  Oscar, 

New  York. 

National  Engine  Co., 
Rockford,  111. 

National  Gear  Wheel  &  Foundry  Co., 

Allegheny,  Pa. 
National  Mach.  Co., 

Hartford,  Conn. 

National  Machine  Works, 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 

National  Meter  Co.,  manufacturers  or 
Nash  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine, 
New  York,  Chicago,  Boston. 

National  Rotary  Valve  Engine  Co., 
Dayton,  Ohio. 

Nelson  Gas  Engine  Works, 
Harlan,  Iowa. 

Newark  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Newark,  N.  J. 

Newell  Bros., 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 
New  England  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Boston,  Mass. 
New  Era  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Dayton,  Ohio. 
N.  Y.  Kerosene  Oil  Engine  Co., 

New  York  City. 
Nichols,  Chas., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Nielson,  H.  P., 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

Norfolk  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co., 
Norfolk,  Neb. 

North,  L.  C.,  &  Co., 
Jefferson,  Iowa. 

Northey  Co.,  Ltd., 
Toronto,  Ont.,  Can. 

Novelty  Iron  Works, 
Dubuque,  Iowa. 

Noye  Mfg.  Co., 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


432 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Ohio  Mfg.  Co., 

Upper  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Ohio  Motor  Co., 
Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Ohio  Motor  Co., 
Toledo,  Ohio. 

Ohio  Valley  Supply  Co., 
Marietta,  Ohio. 

Oil  City  Boiler  Works, 
Oil  City,  Pa. 

Oil  Well  Supply  Co., 
Oil  City,  Pa. 

O.  K.  Gas  Engine  Works, 
Winchester,  Ohio. 

Olds  &  Hough, 
Albion,  Mich. 

Olds  Gasoline  &  Oil  Engine  Works, 
Lansing,  Mich. 

Olin  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Oriental  Gas  Engine  Co., 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Osborne  Machinery  Co., 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Otto  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Peerless  Mfg.  Co., 

Springfield,  Ohio. 
Peerless  Motor  Co., 

Lansing,  Mich. 
Pelton,  T.  G.,  &  Son, 

Lyons,  Iowa. 
Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Pierce-Crouch  Engine  Co., 

New  Brighton,  Pa. 
Pierce  Engine  Co., 

Racine,  Wis. 

Pittsburg  Machine  Co., 
New  Brighton,  Pa. 

Pohl,  Geo.  D.,  Mfg.  Co., 

Vernon,  N.  Y. 

Port  Huron  Mfg.  Co., 
Port  Huron,  Mich. 

Potts  Machinery  Co., 
Columbus,  Ohio. 

Power  &  Mining  Machinery  Co., 
Cudahy,  Wis. 

Presler-Crawley  Mfg.  Co., 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Puget  Sound  Iron  &  Steel  Works, 
Tacoma,  Wash. 

Pungs-Finch  Auto  &  Gas  Engine  Co. 
Detroit,  Mich. 


Palm  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Butler,  Pa. 

Palmer  Bros., 
Cos  Cob,  Conn. 

Parker,  J.  J.,  Co., 
Fulton,  N.  Y. 

Pass  City  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co. 
El  Paso,  Tex. 

Pattin  Bros.  Co., 
Marietta,  Ohio. 

Pease  Engine  &  Mach.  Co., 
Goshen,  Ind. 

Peerless  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 


Racine  Boat  Mfg.  Co., 
Muskegon,  Mich. 

Racine  Hardware  Co., 
Racine,  Wis. 

Regal  Gas  Engine  Co. 
Coldwater,  Mich. 

Reilly,  J.  J.,  Mfg.  Co., 
Louisville,  Ky. 

Reliable  Machine  Co., 
Anderson,  Ind. 

Reliance  Mfg.  Co., 
Providence,  R.  I. 

Richmond  &  Holmes, 
St.  Johns,  Mich. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINE  BUILDERS 


433 


Ried,  Jos.,  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Oil  City,  Pa. 
Riley-Wayman  Mfg.  Co., 

Dayton,  Ohio. 
River  Machine  &  Boiler  Works, 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Robertson,  J.  G., 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Robertson  Mfg.  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Rochester  Machine  Tool  Works, 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Root  &  Vandervoort  Engineering  Co. 

East  Moline,  111. 
Ruger,  J.  W.,  Mfg.  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Ruggles  Machine  Co., 

Poultney,  Vt. 

Rumsey- Williams  Co., 
Johnsville,  N.  Y. 


Salem  Iron  Works, 
Salem,  N.  C. 

Samson  Iron  Works, 
Stockton,  Cal. 

Sands,  H.  S.,  Mfg.  Co., 
Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

Sarvent  Marine  Engine  Works, 
Chicago,  111. 

Savage  &  Love  Co., 
Rockford,  111. 

Schaefer.W.  E., 
Ripon,  Wis. 

Schilling,  Adam,  &  Sons, 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Schoonmaker-Brennelson  Co., 
Warren,  Pa. 

Sciple,  H.  M., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Scott  Bros.  Co., 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Shawd  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Springfield,  Ohio. 


Sheffield  Car  Co.,  Engines  for  Auto- 
mobile Work  and  for  Marine 
Work, 

Three  Rivers,  Mich. 
Shepard,  Chas.  G., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Shorthill,  A.  E.,  Co., 

Marshalltown,  Iowa. 
Silvester  Mfg.  Co., 

Lindsay,  Ont.,  Can. 
Sintz,  Claude, 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Sintz  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Sipp  Electric  &  Machine  Co., 

Paterson,  N.  J. 
Skillin  &  Richards  Mfg.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Smalley  Bros.  Co., 

Bay  City,  Mich. 

Smart-Turner  Mach.  Co., 
Hamilton,  Ont.,  Can. 

Smith-Courtney  &  Co., 

Richmond,  Va. 
Snow  Mfg.  Co., 

Batavia,  111. 
Snydor  Pump  &  Well  Co., 

Richmond,  Va. 
Spade  Engine  Co., 

Vicksburg,  Mich. 
Spaulding  Gas  Engine  Works, 

St.  Joseph,  Mich. 

Spears  &  Riddle, 
Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

Springfield  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Springfield,  Ohio. 
Stamford  Motor  Co., 

Stamford,  Conn. 

Standard  Auto  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Youngstown,  Ohio. 

Standard  Motor  Construction  Co., 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Star  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co., 
Oshkosh,  Wis. 

Star  Gas  Engine  Co., 
New  York  City. 


434 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Star  Mfg.  Co., 
Wabash,  Ind. 

Stearns  Gas  Engine  Works, 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Stickney,  Chas.  A.,  Co., 
St.  Paul,  Minn. 

St.    Louis    Gas    &    Gasoline    Engine 

Works, 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 

St.  Mary's  Machine  Co., 
St.  Mary's,  Ohio. 

Stohr  &  Freund, 
Muscatine,  Iowa. 

Stover  Engine  Works, 
Freeport,  111. 

Strang  Engine  Co., 
Harvey,  111. 

Stratford  Mill  Building  Co., 
Stratford,  Ont.,  Can. 

Strelinger,  Chas.  A.,  Co., 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Strobel,  Fredk., 
Marion,  Ohio. 

Struthers,  Wells  &  Co., 
Warren,  Pa. 

Superior  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Springfield,  Ohio. 

Swain  Hardware  Mfg.  Co., 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Swan,  John  W.,  Co., 
Lima,  Ohio 

Swan  Electric  Mfg.  Co., 
Middletown,  Conn. 

Swartzenburg  Mfg.  Co., 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 


Tate,  Jones  &  Co., 
Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Taylor  &  Hough, 
St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Temple  Pump  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 


Termaat  &  Monahan  Co., 

Oshkosh,  Wis. 
Thomas,  E.  R.,  Motor  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Thomas,  W.  K.,  &  Co., 

Baltimore,  Md. 
Thompson,  Andr., 

New  York  City. 

Thompson,  J.,  &  Sons  Mfg.  Co.,  Gas, 
Gasoline  and  Producer-Gas  En- 
gines; Gas  Producer  Plants, 

Beloit,  Wis. 
Three  Rivers  Elec.  Co., 

Three  Rivers,  Mich. 
Tillinghast,  B.  D., 

McDonald,  Pa. 
Titusville  Iron  Works, 

Titus ville,  Pa. 
Trask,  Chas.  A., 

Jackson,  Mich. 
Trebert  Auto  &  Marine  Motor  Co., 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Troy  Engine  &  Mach.  Co., 

Troy,  Pa. 
Trumbull  Mfg.  Co., 

Warren,  Ohio. 
Truscott  Boat  Mfg.  Co., 

St.  Joseph,  Mich. 
Turner  &  Swarzenberg, 

Lawrence,  Mass. 

Tuttle,  D.  M.,  Co., 
Canastota,  N.  Y. 

U 

Underwood,   F.    M.,   Gas   Engine   & 

Motor  Co., 
Elmore,  Ohio. 

Union  Gas  Engine  Co., 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Union  Iron  Works, 
Memphis,  Tenn. 

Union  Machine  &  Boiler  Works, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Union  Steam  Specialty  Co., 
Scranton,  Pa. 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINE  BUILDERS 


435 


U.  S.  Engine  Co., 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va. 
U.  S.  Engine  Works, 

Oshkosh,  Wis. 
Utica  Gas  Engine  Works, 

Utica,  N.  Y. 

V 

Valentine  Bros.  Mfg.  Co., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Van  Auken  &  Clevauc, 

Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Van  Dusen  Gas  &  Gasoline  Engine 
Co., 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

W 

Wabash  Engine  Co., 

Wabash,  Ind. 
Walof,  E.  G., 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Waterloo  Gasoline  Engine  Co., 

Waterloo,  Iowa. 
Watkins,  F.  M.,  Mfg.  Co., 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Watrous  Engine  Works  Co., 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Webber  &  Richer  Mach.  Works, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Weber  Gas  &  Gasoline  Engine  Co., 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Webster  Mfg.  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
Weeber,  C.  R.,  Mfg.  Co., 

Albany,  N.  Y. 
Welch  &  Lawson, 

New  York  City. 
Werner,  Chas.,  &  Co., 

Pine  Grove,  Pa. 
Western  Gas  Engine  Co., 

Mishawaka,  Ind. 
Western  Iron  Works, 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Western  Launch  &  Engine  Works, 

Michigan  City,  Ind. 


Westinghouse  Co., 
Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Westinghouse  Machine  Co., 
East  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

White  &  Middleton  Gas  Engine  Co., 
Baltimore,  Md. 

White-Blakeslee  Mfg.  Co., 
Birmingham,  Ala. 

White  Mfg.  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Whitney,  F.  E., 
Boston,  Mass. 

Willard,  C.  P.,  &  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Willmar  Gasoline  Engine  Works, 
Willmar,  Minn. 

Wing,  L.  J.,  Mfg.  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Winkley  Engine  Co., 

Lynn,  Mass. 
Wisconsin  Wheel  Works, 

Racine,  Wis. 
Witte  Iron  Works  Co., 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Wolverine  Motor  Works, 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Woodin  &  Little, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Wooley  Foundry  &  Machine  Co., 

Anderson,  Ind. 
Wright  Motor  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Wyandotte  Gas  Engine  &  Novelty 

Works, 
Wyandotte,  Mich. 


Yacht  Gas  Engin .?  &  Launch  Co., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Yale  Gas  Engine    'o., 

Cedar  Falls,  lo    a. 
Young,  E.  R.,  &     o., 

Titus ville,  Pa. 


INDEX 


Absolute  efficiency,  38. 

Acetylene  gas,  77-81. 

Advanced  ignition,  52,  53. 

Air-cooled  motor,  203. 

Air-pump,  92. 

Alcohol  motive  power,  81. 

Amateur,  284-286. 

Apple  dynamo,  140. 

Aspirator  gas-plant,  386. 

Atomizers,  constant-level,  96,  99,  100. 

Atomizing  carbureters,  93-105,  314. 

Automobile  motor-controller,  248. 

Automobile   motors,    19*2,    194,    205, 

343.344- 

Automobile  safety-device,  248. 
Automobile  speed-gears,  245,  246. 


B 


Back-firing,  276. 

Balanced  motor,  206. 

Balancing  cranks,  173-175. 

Base-frame,  172. 

Batteries,  primary,  131-133. 

Battery,  dry,  131. 

Belgian  gas-producer,  380. 

Bessemer  motor,  211. 

Bicycle  motors,  338-341. 

Blast-furnace  gas,  375. 

Boat    dimensions   and   powers,    314, 

31?- 

Bollinckx  gas-engine,  235. 
Boxes,  journal,  176,  177. 
Boyle's  law,  22. 
Brake,  prony,  251. 
Brake,  strap,  253. 
Break-spark  devices,  141-145. 
Brodie  re  versing- gear,  243. 
Bushed  piston,  170. 


Calcium  carbide,  78. 
Cam  design,  190. 
Cam  governor,  120. 
Carbureters,  85-105. 
Care   and   operation    of   the   motor- 
bicycle,  339. 

Centrifugal  governor,  121. 
Change  speed-gears,  245,  246. 
Claudel  oil-carbureter,  102-105. 
Clutches,  240-242. 
Coal-gas,  70. 
Coil,  dash,  155. 
Coil,  jump-spark,  152—155. 
Coke-oven  gas,  373. 
Combustion  chambers,  60. 
Combustion,  rate,  49. 
Combustion,  retarded,  46. 
Combustion  theory,  26,  27. 
Combustion  velocity,  27,  28. 
Comparative  card,  35. 
Compression,  36,  40,  48,  54. 
Compression  values,  54-58. 
Connecting-rods,  171. 
Constant  oil-feed,  164. 
Construction  details,  167-177. 
Controller  for  automobiles,  248. 
Counter-balancing  crank,  173,  175. 
Cranks,  173-177,  293. 
Crossley  engine,  226,  227. 
Crossley  gas-producer,  384. 
Crude  petroleum,  77. 
Cycle,  perfect,  37. 
Cycles  of  the  motor,  188. 
Cyclic  phases,  189. 
Cylinder  capacity,  106-110. 
Cylinder  friction,  68. 
Cylinder  joints,  168,  169. 
Cylinder  lubricators  ,162. 
Cylinder  volume,  67,  106. 
437 


438 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Dash  coil,  155. 

Day  model,  191. 

Diagram — adiabatic    and  isothermal 

lines,  23. 

Diagram  compression,  40,  58. 
Diagram  of  combustion,  28,  29. 
Diagram  of  explosive  mixtures,  45. 
Diagram  of  perfect  cycle,  37. 
Diagram,  Otto  cycle,  48. 
Diesel  motor,  205. 
Differential  cam,  120. 
Dimensions  of  motor  parts,  no,  in. 
Distillates,  74,  77. 
Dudbridge  gas-engine,  213. 
Duryee  exploder,  151. 
Dynamo  electric  ignition,  135. 
Dynamo,  winding,  139. 


Economy,  De  Rocha,  33. 
Economy  for  electric  light,  63. 
Edison  batteries,  133. 
Efficiencies,  actual,  mechanical,  37. 
Efficiency  formulas,  34. 
Efficiency,  greatest,  21. 
Efficiency  of  early  engines,  33. 
Efficiencies,  motor,  38. 
Efficiencies,  piston-speed,  47. 
Electric  ignition-plugs,  145-152. 
Electric-light  trials,  64-66. 
Elyria  gas-engine,  215. 
Expansion  of  gases,  24,  33. 
Explosion   at   constant   volume,    28, 

29. 

Explosive  effect,  mixtures,  72. 
Explosive-motor  ignition  ,122. 
Explosive  motors,  early  types,  17. 
Explosive-motor  testing,  272-276. 
Explosive  motor,  types,  191-249. 
Explosive-motor  wiring,  156-160. 


Fairbanks-Morse  Co.  producer,  395. 
Fire  Underwriters'  regulations,   277- 

283.  399- 
Fly-wheels,  no,  in,  174. 


Formula  for  counter-balance,  182. 

Formula  for  worm-gear,  184. 

Formulas,  compression,  55,  56. 

Formulas  for  horse-power,  253,  254. 

Formulas  of  efficiency,  34,  39,  40. 

Formulas  of  expansion,  25. 

Formulas  of  temperature  and  press- 
ure, 43. 

Formulas,  motor  dimensions,  179- 
182. 

Fuel  oil,  77. 


Gas  and  gasoline  motors,  284,  294. 

Gas-bag,  164,  297. 

Gas,  gasoline,  and  oil-engine  build- 
ers, 423-435. 

Gas-generators,  309,  310,  338. 

Gas-oil,  74. 

Gasoline,  74,  75. 

Gasoline-vapor,  76,  88,  90. 

Gasoline,  waste,  84. 

Gear,  change-^peed,  245,  246. 

Gear,  reversing,  240-246. 

German  gas-producer,  381,  397. 

Governors  and  valve-gear,  112-121, 
213,  214,  345.. 

Gravity-regulator,  91. 

Grip  controller,  338. 

Grooved  cam  valve-gear,  119. 


II 


Heat  absorption,  26. 

Heat  and  its  work,  26. 

Heat  efficiency,  41. 

Heat  formulas,  25,  39-41- 

Heat  ratios,  70. 

Heat  utilization,  32-36. 

Henricks     magneto    speed-governor, 

345- 

Historical  progress,  17-19. 

Horse-power   and   sizes,   marine   en- 
gines, 314,  317. 

Hot-tube  setting,  124-127. 


I 

Igniter,  Cushman,  331. 
Igniters,  hot-tube,  122-127. 


INDEX 


439 


Ignition,  122—161. 

Ignition  devices,  127-130,  237,  292, 

3°5- 

Ignition,  electric,  130-161. 
Ignition,  multicylinder,  138. 
Ignition-plugs,  145-162,  292. 
Ignition  wiring,  156. 
Indicator  and  its  work,  256-258. 
Indicator  card,  advanced  ignition,  53, 
Indicator  card,  Atkinson,  49. 
Indicator  card,  compression,  51. 
Indicator  card,  Diesel  motor,  52. 
Indicator  card,  full  load,  50. 
Indicator  card,  half  load,  50. 
Indicator  card,  kerosene-motor,  51. 
Indicator  card,  Lenoir,  33,  35. 
Indicator  card,  wall-cooling,  46. 
Inefficiencies,  59-62. 
Inertia  governors,  115,  116. 
Insurance  regulations,  277-283,  399. 
Isothermal  law,  21. 

J 

Jacket  water,  48. 
Joule's  law,  26. 
Jump-spark,  128. 
Jump-spark  coil,  152-155. 

K 

Kerosene,  74,  76. 

Kerosene-oil     engines,     fire     regula- 
tions, 282. 
Kerosene-oil   motor,    216,    217,    220, 

234- 
Kerosene  vaporizers,  309,  310. 


Launch,  racing,  319. 
Law,  adiabatic,  23. 
Law,  Boyle's,  22,  23. 
Law,  Gay  Lussac,  22. 
Law,  isothermal,  21. 
Law"  of  expansion,  24. 
Lazier  motor,  208. 
Lewis  motor,  200. 
Lightest  motor,  205. 
Liquid  acetylene,  78. 


Lister  two- cylinder  motor,  232, 
Loss  and  inefficiency,  59-62. 
Lowe  gas-producer,  379. 
Lozier  break-sparker,  145. 
Lozier  motor,  207. 
Lubricators,  162. 


M 

Magneto  generators,  136-138. 

Magneto  speed-governor,  345. 

Management  of  explosive  motors, 
262-268. 

Marine  motors,  311,  313,  314-335- 

Marine  motors  and  their  work,  313. 

Material  of  power,  70-84. 

Measurement  of  indicator  card,  274. 

Measurement  of  power,  250. 

Measurement  of  speed,  254. 

Mechanical  equivalent,  23. 

Mietz  &  Weiss  reversing-gear,  244. 

Mond  gas-generator,  385. 

Motor  air-compressor,  312. 

Motor-bicycles,  tricycles,  and  auto- 
mobiles, 336-346. 

Motor,  Chadwick,  344. 

Motor  clutches,  240-242. 

Motor,  the  Diesel,  361-365. 

Motor  dimensions,  178-183. 

Motor,  Mitchell,  341. 

Motors,  air-cooled,  203. 

Motors,  American  and  British  Man- 
ufacturing Co . , 352. 

Motors,  balanced,  206,  343. 

Motors,  Bessemer,  211. 

Motors,  Blakeslee,  299. 

Motors,  Bollinckx,  235. 

Motors,  Brennan,  192,  343. 

Motors,  Bridgeport,  315-317. 

Motors,  combination,  206. 

Motors,  Crossley,  226,  227. 

Motors,  Cushman,  328-331. 

Motors,  Day,  Root,  191. 

Motors,  Diesel,  205. 

Motors,  differential  piston,  196. 

Motors,  Dudbridge,  213. 

Motors,  Elyria,  215. 

Motors,  Fairbanks,  Morse  and  Com- 
pany, 307-312. 

Motors,  fan-cooled,  239. 


440 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Motors,  Gemmer,  287-289. 

Motors,  Godshalk  &  Co.,  319-321. 

Motors,  Hall  Bros.,  325. 

Motors,  Hartig,  300,  301. 

Motors,    Henshaw,    Bulkley    &    Co., 

354,  355- 

Motors,  Hornsby-Akroyd,  359-361. 
Motors,  Hubbard,  304-306. 
Motors,  International  Power  Vehicle 

Co.,  347-35°- 
Motor   sizes,    propellers,    and   boats, 

3*4. 

Motors,  kerosene,  216. 

Motors,  kerosene,  distillate,  and  pe- 
troleum, 347-368. 

Motors,  Lambert,  295-297. 

Motors,  Lazier,  208. 

Motors,  Lewis,  200. 

Motors,  lightest,  205. 

Motors,  Lister  two-cylinder,  232. 

Motors,  Lozier,  207,  326-328. 

Motors,  Mianus,  323,  324. 

Motors,  Mietz  &  Weiss,  355-358. 

Motors,  Millot,  218. 

Motors,  Nash,  204. 

Motors,  N.  Y.  Kerosene  Oil  Engine 
Co.,  351. 

Motors,  non-vibrating,  192,  343. 

Motor,  Nurnberg,  222-224. 

Motors,  Oil  City,  210. 

Motors,  Olds,  229. 

Motors,  Olin,  202. 

Motors,  J.  J.  Parker  Co.,  321. 

Motors,  R.  &  V.,  302-304. 

Motors,  scavenging,  197,  238. 

Motors,  Smalley,  331-335- 

Motors,  Standard  Motor  Construc- 
tion Co.,  322. 

Motors,  Union,  297,  298. 

Motors,  Walrath,  230. 

Motors,  Wayne,  215. 

Motors,    Weiss    kerosene,    234,    355, 

356. 

Motors,  Westinghouse,  225,  291. 
Motors,  White  &  Middleton,  199. 
Motors,  Yacht,  Gas- Engine,  and 

Launch  Co.,  318. 
Motor,  Thor,  338. 
Motor,  tricycle,  342. 
Motor,  Winton,  194. 


Mufflers,  165. 
Multiple-spark  timer,  161. 

N 

Nagel  gas-plant,  387,  389. 
Nash  motor,  204. 
Natural  gas,  72. 
Nickel-alloy  tubes,  123. 
Non- vibrating  motor,  192,  193 
Nurnberg  engine,  222—224. 


O 


Oil  City  motor,  210. 

Oil-gas,  72,  367. 

Oil-gas  generators,  367. 

Oil-feed  journals,  176. 

Oil-feed  piston  and  crank,  172. 

Oil-motors,  347-368. 

Oil-pump,  234. 

Olds  motor,  229. 

Olin  motor,  202. 

Operation  and  care  of  motor  bicycles, 

339- 
Oyster  motor-boat,  324. 


Patents,  19. 

Patents  since  1875,  401-422. 

Pendulum  governor,  117,  120. 

Petroleum  products,  74. 

Petteler  change-speed  gear,  246. 

Phases  of  the  motor  cycle,  189. 

Pick-blade  governor,  114. 

Pintsch  gas-producer,  382. 

Piston  and  pin  oiling,  169,  172. 

Piston,  bushed,  170. 

Piston,  proportions,  168,  169. 

Platinum  tube,  124. 

Plug,  Duryee,  151. 

Plug,  Maxwell,  150. 

Plugs,  ignition,  145-162,  292. 

Plugs,  Splitdorf,  149. 

Plugs,  Sta-Rite,  145,  146. 

Pointers  on  explosive  motors,   268- 

271. 

Porcelain  tube,  123. 
Pressure  gas-producer,  392. 


INDEX 


441 


Principle  types,  21. 

Producer-gas,  73. 

Producer-gas  and  its  production,  370. 

Producer-gas  for  marine  propulsion, 

378. 

Producer-gas  generators,  378. 
Prony  brake,  251. 
Pump,  kerosene,  234. 
Pump,  starting,  308. 

R 

Radiators,  cooling,  238,  239. 

Ratchet  valve-gear,  118. 

Ratio  of  expansion,  24. 

Reducing  pulley,  259. 

Regulations,  Board  of  Underwriters, 

277-283,398. 
Regulator,  91. 
Replacing  piston,  170. 
Reversing-gear,  242-246. 
Rice  sparker,  144. 
Ring  valve-gear,  119. 
Robey  governor,  112. 
Root  model,  191. 


Safety-device  for  automobiles,  248. 
Scavenging,  68,  238. 
Self-oiling  j  ournals  ,176. 
Semi-water  gas,  74. 
Shaft-bearings,  173-177. 
Shrinkage  by  combustion,  49,  50. 
Sizes  and  horse-power  marine  engines, 

3*4, 3*7- 

Spark-break  devices,  141—145,  149. 
Sparking-coil,  134. 
Specific  heat  of  gases,  70. 
Speed  efficiencies,  47. 
Splitdorf  plug,  149. 
Sta- Rite  plugs,  145,  146. 
Starting  clutches,  240-242. 
Starting  gear,  247,  308. 
Suction  gas-plant,  310. 
Suction  producer-gas,  371,  386,  395. 


Table  I.     Explosive  pressures,  28. 
Table  II.     Explosive  mixtures,  29. 
Table  III.     Explosive  properties,  30. 


Table  IV.  Temperature  and  press- 
ures, 42. 

Table  V.  Temperatures,  clearance, 
and  mixture,  44. 

Table  VI.     Piston-speed  efficiencies, 

47- 

Table  VII.  Compression  and  clear- 
ance, 56. 

Table  VIII.  Compression  tempera- 
tures, 57. 

Table  IX.     Compression  ratios,  57. 

Table  X .     Material  of  power,  7 1 . 

Table  XI.  Natural  gas  constituents, 
72. 

Table  XII.     Specific  gravity  ,75. 

Table  XIII.  Cylinder  capacity  and 
rating,  107. 

Table  XIV.  Cylinder  capacity  and 
rating,  107. 

Table  XV.  Rating  of  English  en- 
gines, 107. 

Table  XVI.    Dimensions,  engine,  no. 

Table  XVII.  Dimensions,  large  en- 
gines, in. 

Tachometer,  255. 

Testing  motors,  272-276. 

Theory  of  the  gas  and  gasoline  en- 
gine, 20. 

Thor  motor-bicycle,  337-340. 

Time  of  explosion,  28. 

Timer,  multiple-spark,  161. 

Timing  valves,  126,  127. 

Troubles,  269. 

Types  and  motor  details,  191-249. 

Types  of  explosive  motors,  21,  67,  69. 

U 

Underwriters'    regulations,    277-283, 

398. 
Utilization  of  heat  and  its  efficiency, 

32- 

V 

Valve  design,  184,  228,  231. 

Valve  details,  187,  198,  208-210,  211, 

213,  214,  216,  220,  229. 
Valve,  double-port,  120. 
Valve-gears,   118-121,  220,  221,  224, 

230,  236,  296. 


442 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL-ENGINES 


Valves  and  design,  184-186,  228. 

Valve  sizes,  180. 

Valves,  rotary,  188. 

Vapor-gas,  90. 

Vaporizer,  Hay,  97. 

Vaporizer,   heat,   95,    219,    229,    298, 

3°9>  310- 

Velocity  of  combustion,  27,  28. 
Vertical  atomizer,  98. 
Vibration    of    buildings    and    floors, 

259-261. 

W 

Wall  surface,  48. 
Walrath  motor,  230. 


Water-cooled  valve,  228,  231. 

Water-cooling,  61. 

Water-gas,  73. 

Wayne  motor,  215. 

Weed  motor,  284. 

Weight  of  gas  and  air  mixtures,  30 , 

Weiss  kerosene-oil  motor,  234. 

Westinghouse  engine,  225. 

White  &  Middleton  motor,  199. 

Wile  gas-plant,  391. 

Winton  change-speed  gear,  246. 

Winton  motor,  194. 

Wiring,  156-160. 

Wood-fuel  gas-producer,  393,  394- 

Worm-cam  valve-gear,  1 18. 

Worm-gear,  183. 


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compression  and  apparatus  employed,  its  use  in  transmitting  power,  air  motors  and  their 
efficiency,  and  a  host  of  other  information  in  this  connection.  Pneumatic  tools  and  their 
uses  receive  ample  attention,  as  do  the  sand-blast,  pneumatic  tube  transmission,  and  other 
amlications,  such  as  raising  water,  ice  machines  and  liquid  air,  while  the  air  brake  and  air 
signal  also  come  in  for  their  share.  Taken  as  a  whole  it  may  be  called  an  encyclopaedia  of 
compressed  air.  It  is  written  by  an  expert,  who,  in  its  825  pages,  has  dealt  with  the  sub- 
ject in  a  comprehensive  manner,  no  phase  of  it  being  omitted.  545  illustrations,  820 
pages.  Price,  $5.00. 

HISCOX.     Horseless  Vehicles,  Automobiles  and  Motor  Cycles,  Operated 
by  Steam,  Hydro-Carbon,  Electric,  and  Pneumatic  Motors 

A  practical  treatise  of  459  pages  and  316  illustrations  for  Automobilists,  Manufacturers, 
Capitalists,  Investors,  Promoters,  and  every  one  interested  in  the  development  cr.re,  and 
use  of  the  Automobile. 

Nineteen  chapters.     Large  8 vo.     316  illustrations.     460  pages.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

HISCOX.     Mechanical  Movements,  Powers,  and  Devices 

This  work  of  400  pages  contains  1,800  specially  made  illustrations  with  descriptive 
text.  It  is  a  Dictionary  of  Mechanical  Movements,  Powers,  Devices,  and  Appliances, 
embracing  an  illustrated  description  of  the  greatest  variety  of  Mechanical  Movements  and 
Devices  in  any  language.  A  new  work  on  illustrated  Mechanics,  Mechanical  Movements 
and  Devices,  covering  nearly  the  whole  range  of  the  practical  and  inventive  field  for  the 
use  of  Machinists,  Mechanics,  Inventors,  Engineers,  Draughtsmen,  Students,  and  all  others 
interested  in  any  way  in  the  devising  and  operation  of  mechanical  works  of  any  kind.  $3.00. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

HISCOX.     Mechanical  Appliances,  Mechanical  Movements  and  Novelties 
of  Construction 

The  many  editions  through  which  the  first  volume  of  "Mechanical  Movements"  has 
passed  are  more  than  a  sufficient  encouragement  to  warrant  the  publication  of  a  second 
volume  of  400  pages,  containing  1,000  larger  and  specially-made  illustrations,  which  are 
more  special  in  scope  than  those  in  the  first  volume,  inasmuch  as  they  deal  with  the  pecul- 
iar requirements  of  the  various  arts  and  manufactures,  and  more  detailed  in  their  ex- 
planations, because  of  the  greater  complexity  of  the  machinery  illustrated  and  described. 
$3.00. 

HISCOX.     Modern  Steam  Engineering  in  Theory  and  Practice 

This  book  has  been  specially  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  modern  steam  engineer,  the 
technical  students,  and  all  who  desire  the  latest  and  most  reliable  information  on  steam 
and  steam  boilers,  the  machinery  of  power,  the  steam  turbine,  electric  power  and  lighting 
plants,  etc.  450  octavo  pages,  400  detailed  engravings.  $3.00. 

HORNER.     Modern  Milling  Machines :   Their  Design,  Construction  and 
Operation 

This  work  of  304  pages  is  fully  illustrated  and  describes  and  illustrates  the  Milling 
Machine  from  its  early  conception  to  the  present  time.  $4.00. 

HORNER.     Practical  Metal  Turning 

A  work  covering  the  modern  practice  of  machining  metal  parts  in  the  lathe.  Fully 
illustrated.  $3.50. 

HORNER.     Tools  for  Machinists  and  Wood  Workers,  Including  Instru- 
ments of  Measurment 

A  practical  work  of  340  pages  fully  illustrated,  giving  a  general  description  and  classi- 
fication of  tools  for  machinists  and  woodworkers.  $3.50. 

Inventor's  Manual ;    How  to  Make  a  Patent  Pay 

This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to  inventors  in  perfecting  their  inventions,  taking 
out  their  patents  and  disposing  of  them.  119  pages.  Cloth,  $1.00. 

KRAUSS.     Linear  Perspective  Self-Taught 

The  underlying  principle  by  which  objects  may  be  correctly  represented  in  perspec- 
tive is  clearly  set  iorth  in  this  book ;  everything  relating  to  the  subject  is  shown  in  suitable 
diagrams,  accompanied  by  full  explanations  in  the  text.  Price  $2.50. 

LE  VAN.     Safety  Valves;    Their  History,  Invention,  and  Calculation 

Illustrated  by  69  engravings.      151  pages.     $1.50. 

LEWES  AND  BRAME.     Laboratory  Note  Book 

A  practical  treatise  prepared  for  the  Chemical  Student.    170  pages.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

MATHOT.     Modern  Gas  Engines  and  Producer  Gas  Plants 

A  practical  treatise  of  320  pages,  fully  illustrated  by  175  detailed  illustrations,  setting 
forth  the  principles  of  gas  engines  and  producer  design,  the  selection  and  installation  of 
an  engine,  conditions  of  perfect  operation,  producer-gas  engines  and  their  possibilities, 
the  care  of  gas  engines  and  producer-gas  plants,  with  a  chapter  on  volatile  hydrocarbon 
and  oil  engines.  $2.50. 

MEINHARDT.     Practical  Lettering  and  Spacing 

Shows  a  rapid  and  accurate  method  of  becoming  a  good  letterer  with  a  little  practice. 
Oblong.  Paper  cover.  60  cents. 

PARSELL  &  WEED.     Gas  Engine  Construction 

A  practical  treatise  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of  the  action  of  gas  engines 
of  various  types,  and  the  design  and  construction  of  a  half -horse-power  gas  engine,  with 
illustrations  of  the  work  in  actual  progress,  together  with  dimensioned  working  drawings 
giving  clearly  the  sizes  of  the  various  details.  Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Twen- 
ty-five chapters.  Large  8vo.  Handsomely  illustrated  and  bound.  300  pages.  $2.50. 

PERRIGO.     Modern  Machine  Shop  Construction,  Equipment  and  Man- 
agement 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern  Machine  Shop  or  Manufacturing 
Plant  from  the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished  prod- 
uct is  shipped.  By  a  careful  study  of  its  chapters  the  practical  man  may  economically 
build,  efficiently  equip,  and  successfully  manage  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufact- 
uring establishment.  Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of 
modern  shop  buildings,  the  rebuilding  and  reorganization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction 
of  Modern  Shop  Methods,  Time  and  Cost  Systems.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated 
by  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical  shop  men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want 
tacts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all-around  book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  400  large 
quarto  pages,  225  original  and  specially-made  illustrations.  $5.00. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

PERRIGO.      Modern  American  Lathe  Practice 

A  new  book  describing  and  illustrating  the  very  latest  practice  in  lathe  and  boring 
mill  operations,  as  well  as  the  construction  of  and  latest  developments  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  these  important  classes  of  machine  tools.  300  pages,  fully  illustrated.  $2.50. 

REAGAN,  JR.     Electrical    Engineers'    and   Students'  Chart  and   Hand- 
Book  of  the  Brush  Arc  Light  System 

Illustrated.     Bound  in  cloth,  with  celluloid  chart  in  pocket.     50  cents. 
SAUNIER.     Watchmaker's  Hand-Book 

Just  issued,  ?th  edition.  Contains  498  pages  and  is  a  workshop  companion  for  those 
engaged  in  watchmaking  and  allied  mechanical  arts.  250  engravings  and  14  plates.  $3.00. 

SLOANE.     Electricity  Simplified 

The  object  of  "Electricity  Simplified"  is  to  make  the  subject  as  pl-in  as  possible  and 
to  show  what  the  modern  conception  of  electricity  is.  158  pages.  Illustrated.  Twelfth 
edition.  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     How  to  Become  a  Successful  Electrician 

It  is  the  ambition  of  thousands  of  young  and  old  to  become  electrical  engineers.  Not 
every  one  is  prepared  to  spend  several  thousand  dollars  upon  a  college  course,  even  if  the 
three  of  four  years  requisite  are  at  their  disposal.  It  is  possible  to  become  an  electrical 
engineer  without  this  sacrifice,  and  this  work  is  designed  to  tell  "How  to  Become  a  Suc- 
cessful Electrician"  without  the  outlay  usually  spent  in  acquiring  the  profession.  Twelfth 
edition.  189  pages.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Arithmetic  of  Electricity 

A  practical  treatise  on  electrical  calculations  of  all  kinds,  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules, 
all  of  the  simplest  forms,  and  involving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each  rule  illustrated  by 
one  or  more  practical  problems,  with  detailed  solution  of  each  one.  Nineteenth  edition. 
Illustrated.  138  pages.  Cloth,  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Electrician's  Handy  Book 

An  up-to-date  work  covering  the  subject  of  practical  electricity  in  all  its  branches, 
being  intended  for  the  every-day  working  electrician.  The  latest  and  best  authority  on 
all  branches  of  applied  electricity.  Pocketbook  size.  Handsomely  bound  in  leather, 
with  title  and  edges  in  gold.  800  pages.  500  illustrations.  Price,  $3.50. 

SLOANE.     Electric  Toy  Making,  Dynamo  Building,  and  Electric  Motor 
Construction 

This  work  treats  of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys,  electrical  apparatus,  motors, 
dynamos,  and  instruments  in  general,  and  is  designed  to  bring  within  the  reach  of  young 
and  old  the  manufacture  of  genuine  and  useful  electrical  appliances.  Eighteenth  edition. 
Fully  illustrated.  140  pages.  Cloth,  $1.00 

SLOANE.     Rubber  Hand  Stamps  and  the  Manipulation  of  India  Rubber 

A  practical  treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  rubber  articles.  146  pages. 
Second  edition.  Cloth.  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Liquid  Air  and  the  Liquefaction  of  Gases 

Containing  the  full  theory  of  the  subject  and  giving  the  entire  history  of  liquefaction 
of  gases  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present.  It  shows  how  liquid  air,  like  water,  is 
carried  hundreds  of  miles  and  is  handled  in  open  buckets.  It  tells  what  may  be  expected 
from  it  in  the  near  future.  365  pages,  with  many  illustrations.  Handsomely  bound  in 
buckram.  Second  edition.  $2.00. 

SLOANE.     Standard  Electrical  Dictionary 

A  practical  handbook  of  reference,  containing  definitions  of  about  5,000  distinct  words, 
terms,  and  phrases.  An  entirely  new  edition,  brought  up  to  date  and  greatly  enlarged. 
Complete,  concise,  convenient.  682  pages.  393  illustrations.  Handsomely  bound  in 
doth.  8vo.  $3.00. 

STARBUCK.     Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated 

A  comprehensive  and  up-to-date  work  illustrating  and  describing  the  Drainage  and 
Ventilation  of  dwellings,  apartments,  and  public  buildings,  etc.  The  very  latest  and  most 
approved  methods  in  all  branches  of  sanitary  installation  are  given.  Adopted  by  the 
United  States  Government  in  its  sanitary  work  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines, 
and  by  the  principal  boards  of  health  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  standard 
book  for  master  plumbers,  architects,  builders,  plumbing  inspectors,  boards  of  health, 
boards  of  plumbing  examiners,  and  for  the  property  owner,  as  well  as  for  the  workman 
and  his  apprentice.  300  pages.  50  full-page  illustrations.  $4.00. 

USHER.     The  Modern  Machinist 

A  practical  treatise  embracing  the  most  approved  methods  of  modern  machine-shop 
practice,  and  the  applications  of  recent  improved  appliances,  tools,  and  devices  for  facili- 
tating, duplicating,  and  expediting  the  construction  of  machines  and  their  parts.  A  new 
book  from  cover  to  cover.  Fifth  edition.  257  engravings.  322  pages.  Cloth,  $2.50. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

VAN  DERVOORT.     Modern  Machine  Shop  Tools ;  Their  Construction, 
Operation,  and  Manipulation,  Including  Both  Hand  and  Machine  Tools 

An  entirely  new  and  fully  illustrated  work  of  555  pages  and  673  illustrations,  describ- 
ing in  every  detail  the  construction,  operation,  and  manipulation  of  both  Hand  and  Machine 
Tools;  being  a  work  of  practical  instruction  in  all  classes  of  machine-shop  practice.  In- 
cluding chapters  on  filing,  fitting,  and  scraping  surfaces;  on  drills,  reamers,  taps,  and  dies; 
the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers,  shapers,  and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters; 
gear  cutters  and  gear  cutting;  drilling  machines  and  drill  work;  grinding  machines  and 
their  work;  hardening  and  tempering;  gearing,  belting,  and  transmission  machinery;  useful 
data  and  tables.  •  Fourth  edition.  $4.00. 

WALLIS-  TAYLOR.     Pocket  Book  of  Refrigeration  and  Ice  Making 

This  is  one  of  the  latest  and  most  comprehensive  reference  books  published  on  the  sub- 
ject of  refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains  the  properties  and  relrigerating  effect 
of  the  different  fluids  in  use,  the  management  of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the  construc- 
tion and  insulation  of  cold  rooms,  with  their  required  pipe  surface  for  different  degrees  of 
cold;  freezing  mixtures  and  non-freezing  brines,  temperatures  of  cold  rooms  for  ell  kinds 
of  provisions;  cold-storage  charges  for  all  classes  of  goods,  ice-making  and  storage  of  ice, 
data  and  memoranda  for  constant  reference  by  refrigerating  engineers,  with  nearly  one 
hundred  tables  containing  valuable  references  to  every  fact  and  condition  required  in  the 
instalment  and  operation  of  a  refrigerating  plant.  $1.50. 

WOOD.     Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear 

The  only  work  issued  treating  of  this  subject  of  valve  motion.  150  pages,  illustrated. 
Cloth  $1.50. 

WOODWORTH.     American  Tool  Making    and    Interchangeable  Manu- 
facturing 

A  practical  treatise  of  560  pages,  containing  600  illustrations  on  the  designing,  con- 
structing, use,  and  installation  of  tools,  jigs,  fixtures,  devices,  special  appliances,  sheet-metal 
working  processes,  automatic  mechanisms,  and  labor-saving  contrivances;  together  with 
their  use  in  the  lathe,  milling  machine,  turret  lathe,  screw  machine,  boring  mill,  power 
press,  drill,  subpress,  drop  hammer,  etc.,  for  the  working  of  metals,  the  production  of  in- 
terchangeable machine  parts,  and  the  manufacture  of  repetition  articles  of  metal.  $4.00 

WOODWORTH.     Dies,  Their    Construction   and    Use    for   the    Modern 
Working  of  Sheet  Metals 

A  complete  treatise  of  384  pages  and  505  illustrations  upon  the  designing,  constructing, 
and  use  of  tools,  fixtures,  and  devices,  together  with  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be 
used  in  the  power  press,  for  the  cheap  and  rapid  production  of  the  great  variety  of  sheet 
metal  articles  now  in  use.  It  is  designed  as  a  guide  to  the  production  of  sheet-metal  parts 
at  the  minimum  of  cost  with  the  maximum  of  output.  The  hardening  and  tempering  of 
Press  tools  and  the  classes  of  work  which  may  be  produced  to  the  best  advantage  by  the 
use  of  dies  in  the  Power  press  are  fully  treated. 

The  engravings  show  dies,  press  fixtures,  and  sheet-metal  working  devices,  from  the 
simplest  to  the  most  intricate,  and  the  descriptions  are  so  clear  and  practical  that  all  metal- 
working  mechanics  will  be  able  to  understand  how  to  design,  construct  and  use  them.  $3.00. 

WOODWORTH.     Hardening,    Tempering,    Annealing,   and   Forging   of 
Steel 

A  new  book  containing  special  directions  for  the  successful  hardening  and  tempering 
of  all  steel  tools.  Milling  cutters,  taps,  thread  dies,  reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow 
mills,  punches  and  dies,  and  all  kinds  of  sheet-metal  working  tools,  shear  blades,  saws, 
fine  cutlery  and  metal-cutting  tools  of  all  descriptions,  as  well  as  for  all  implements  of  steel, 
both  large  and  small,  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  hardening  and  tempering  processes 
are  presented.  The  uses  to  which  the  leading  brands  of  steel  may  be  adapted  are  con- 
cisely presented,  and  their  treatment  for  working  under  different  conditions  explained, 
as  are  also  the  special  methods  for  the  hardening  and  tempering  of  special  brands.  320 
pages.  250  illustrations.  $2.50. 

WOODWORTH.     Punches,  Dies  and  Tools  for  Manufacturing  in  Presses 

A  work  of  500  pages,  and  illustrated  by  nearly  700  engravings,  being  an  encyclopaedia 
of  die-making,  punch-making,  die-sinking,  sheet-metal  working,  and  making  of  special  tools, 
subpresses,  devices  and  mechanical  combinations  for  punching,  cutting,  bending,  forming, 
piercing,  drawing,  compressing,  and  assembling  sheet-metal  parts  and  also  articles  of  other 
materials  in  machine  tools.  $4.00. 

WRIGHT.     Electric  Furnaces  and  Their  Industrial  Application 

This  is  a  book  which  will  prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people ;  the  manufacturer 
who  desires  to  know  what  product  can  be  manufactured  successfully  in  the  electric  furnace, 
the  chemist  who  wishes  to  post  himself  on  electro-chemistry,  and  the  student  of  science 
who  merely  looks  into  the  subject  from  curiosity.  The  book  is  not  so  scientific  as  to  be  of 
use  only  to  the  technologist,  nor  so  unscientific  as  to  suit  only  the  tyro  in  electro-chemistry ; 
it  is  a  practical  treatise  of  what  has  been  done,  and  of  what  is  being  done,  both  experi- 
mentally and  commercially,  with  the  electric  furnace.  288  pages.  $3.00. 


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